

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIE 





















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THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


BY 

LUCILLE J. K. RAMIREZ 

Teacher of English, University High School, 
Porto Rico 




D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO DALLAS 
LONDON 


.PtUe* 

S&R&s 


Copyright, 1928, 

By D. C. Heath and Company 
21 8 



PRINTED IN U.S.A. 

OCT 12 1928 

©Cl A 1053934 


TO OLE MISS 
MY ALMA MATER 



PREFACE 


The material contained in this little book has been pre¬ 
pared especially to meet the needs of pupils whose native 
language is Spanish. 

The lessons of Part I were written for use in my own 
classes in the ninth grade of the University High School, 
to give my pupils a concrete understanding of the function 
of the various parts of a sentence and their relation to each 
other. 

Part II built itself through the years in which I cor¬ 
rected the same mistakes, chiefly due to idiomatic differ¬ 
ences, made by pupils ranging from fifth graders to high- 
school seniors. 

I wish to thank Mr. Daniel R. Nase and Mr. Juan P. 
Blanco, General Superintendents of English of the Depart¬ 
ment of Education, for their kind and helpful reading of 
the manuscript, and Mr. Jose Padin, Spanish-American 
Editor for D. C. Heath and Company, who read both 
manuscript and proof. 

L. K. de R. 

Rfo Piedras, Porto Rico 
August, 1928 


V 


















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CONTENTS 


Lesson 


Part One 


Page 


Section 

1 . 

2 . 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6 . 

7. 

8 . 
9. 

10 . 

11 . 

12 . 


A — Bases of Sentences. 

The Base of a Sentence. 

Study of First Type of Base. 

Study of Second Type of Base. 

Study of Third Type of Base. 

Study of Fourth Type of Base. 

The Base of a Simple Sentence. 

The Base of a Compound Sentence . 

The Base of a Complex Sentence. 

The Base of a Compound-Complex Sentence . . 
The Base of a Sentence that Contains an Apposi- 

tive. 

Bases of Sentences that Contain a Noun Clause . 
Bases of Sentences that Begin There are or There is 


1-20 

1 

3 

4 
6 

7 

8 
10 
12 

14 

15 
17 
19 


Section B — Modifiers.20-37 

1. Adjectives.20 

2. Adverbs.22 

3. Phrases as Modifiers.24 

4. Phrases that Do the Work of Adjectives .... 26 

5. Phrases that Do the Work of Adverbs.28 

6. Bases of Sentences that Contain Noun Phrases 30 

7. Clauses that Are Used as Adjectives.31 

8. Clauses that Do the Work of Adverbs .... 35 


Part Two 

Section A — Verbal Errors.38-61 

1. Verbs often Wrongly Used because some of their 

Forms are Similar.38 

2. Verbs Confused Because of Similarity in Meaning 43 

vii 




















viii CONTENTS 

Lesson Page 

3. Verbs Confused with Nouns and Adjectives of 

Similar Form and Related Meaning.50 

4. Verbs that Change from d in the Present to t in 

the Past.54 

5. Effect of Auxiliary on Form of Main Verb ... 55 

6. Will and Would .56 

7. Uses of the Past Participle.57 

8. The Third Person Singular.58 

9. The Infinitive .59 

10. Verbal Consistency.60 


Section B — Prepositional Errors.61-64 

1. Prepositions Incorrectly Used with Verbs that 

Take No Preposition.61 

2. Unidiomatic Expressions Due to the Use of the 

Wrong Preposition.62 

3. Cases in Which the Preposition Changes the 

Meaning of the Verb.64 


Section C — Pronominal Errors.65-66 

1. The Personal Pronoun.65 

2. The Possessive Pronoun.65 

3. The Superfluous Use of it .66 


Section D — Unidiomatic Constructions.66-68 

1. The Use of a Noun Clause After Such Verbs as 

Allow, Like, and Want instead of an Infinitive 
Phrase.66 

2. The Use of a Gerund Phrase When an Infinitive 

Phrase Would Be Correct.67 

3. The Use of the Infinitive After the Verbs Make 

(When Make means Render), Let, Think, 
Believe, Consider, and Equivalents.67 

4. Condition Contrary to Fact in Past Time .... 68 


Section E— The Demonstrative Adjectives 


69-70 





















CONTENTS 


IX 


Lesson Page 

Section F — The Division of Words at the End of a 

Line.70-71 

Section G — When One is Chosen from a Group.71 

Section H — The Position of the Direct Object .... 71-72 

Section I — Im Words that are In Words in Spanish ... 72 

Section J — Words Confused Due to Similarity of Sound 

and Spelling.73-83 

Section K — Words Misused Due to Difference in 

Idiom.83-89 











THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


PART ONE 

SECTION A —BASES OF SENTENCES 
1. The Base of a Sentence 

Many centuries ago the forefathers of the races of men 
who live on the earth today had a queer way of talking to 
each other. In fact, they just grunted, and from their 
grunts, in time, there grew words. 

You know how a baby learns to talk, don’t you? At 
first he says just one word, and points his finger, or makes 
little gestures that help us to understand his meaning. 
He will say “dog” and point to the one he sees; perhaps 
his face will show, too, that he is afraid of the dog, or that 
he thinks it an unusually large one, or that it is so cun¬ 
ning and tiny that he would like it to come closer to him. 
After a time, the baby learns little by little how to join 
words in order to express his thoughts more completely, 
and he says “Dog bites” or “Dog comes” or “Dog runs,” 
and then still later he says “Big dog bites,” and “Dog 
runs fast,” or “Dog comes here.” 

When the language of men was developing from the 
grunts and queer sounds with which it began, our rude 
forefathers, like the baby, began with single words, and 
little by little learned to combine them to express their 
ideas more completely. Their rough sentences contained 
only the words necessary to express their idea, sometimes 
not very accurately; when they first joined two or three 
words they used names of objects and actions only, 

1 


2 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


they knew no words that describe, or that tell how, or 
when, or where something is done. 

The next step in the development of language was the 
use of adjectives and of adverbs to modify or change the 
meaning of the name of the thing or of the action in such 
a way that the meaning was made more accurate. 

In our sentence study we are going to construct sen¬ 
tences and analyze sentences, remembering always that 
deep down in every sentence there are words that our 
forefathers would have used to express the same thought, 
and that all the other words in the sentence are only 
words that modify, or change the meaning of those basic 
words by rendering the idea more clearly expressed. 

Those basic words may be called the foundation or 
base of the sentence. The base of a sentence consists 
of the words that are necessary to express the thought, 
without modifiers. 

Read the examples and then underscore the bases of 
the sentences that follow them. 

Model 

1. The boy ran fast. Base: boy ran. 

2. The girl is intelligent. Base: girl is intelligent. 

3. In the darkness we could not see his face. Base: we 
could see face. 

1. Those trees are heavy with fruit. 

2. We found white lilacs on a bush. 

3. The English settled along the coast. 

4. Rome is the capital of Italy. 

5. They named the baby Margaret. 

6. My friends will come in the next train. 

7. The road up El Yunque is very muddy. 

8. We shall return by the San Lorenzo. 

9. The early Spaniards made the Indians slaves. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


3 


10. A ruisenor sings in the tree near my window. 

11. Barranquitas is the native town of Munoz Rivera. 

12. The night was very dark. 

13. I finally reached my destination. 

14. Gold is found in California. 

15. The size of a man’s head should determine the size of his 
hat. 

16. The American colonists defeated the troops of England. 

17. We decorated the soldiers’ graves with flowers. 

18. The people elected Coolidge president. 

19. San Juan is on San Juan harbor. 

20. Eugene Field was the children’s poet. 

Note to the Teacher. — You will notice that there 
are four types of bases, namely: 

1. Subject, verb. 

2. Subject, verb, subjective complement. 

3. Subject, verb, direct object. 

4. Subject, verb, direct object, objective complement. 

Lead the pupils to notice this, also; explain to them 
that parts of a sentence must be included in the base be¬ 
cause they do not modify any word. 

2. Study of First Type of Base 

The bases of some sentences will contain only the 
subject and the verb. 

Examples: 

1. We met at their house. Base \ we met. 

2. The ball was thrown. Base: ball was thrown. 

3. The wind blew from the south. Base: wind blew. 

Sometimes the verb consists of several words, but it is 
one verb and all the words that compose it are included in 
the base. 


4 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Examples: 

1. They might have been caught. 

2. The words had been erased from the blackboard. 

3. He could not have gone yesterday. 

Find the base of each sentence that follows: 

1. The fan was found in the automobile. 

2. Ernest does not spell well. 

3. At last the visit came to an end. 

4. Where is my dictionary? 

5. All might have gone well. 

6. The boys are thinking about vacation. 

7. Sara practices on the piano regularly. 

8. I agree with you. 

9. You may sit beside me. 

10. The prisoner was acquitted of the charge. 

11. The father looked gravely at the son. 

12. The petition was granted. 

13. Doubtless he is here. 

14. How the birds sing today! 

15. The extent of the work should be clearly outlined. 

3. Study of Second Type of Base 

Sometimes the verb is followed by a noun or an adjec¬ 
tive that completes the meaning of the verb by explaining 
or describing the subject. Any word that completes the 
meaning of the verb is a complement; if it also explains 
or describes the subject, it is called a subjective comple¬ 
ment. 

Examples: 

1. The morning was clear. 

2. Man is an animal. 

When the subjective complement is a noun or pronoun, 
it is always in the nominative case; this is especially im- 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


5 


portant to remember when the subjective complement is 
a pronoun, because the pronouns change their forms, or are 
inflected, to show their relation to the other words in the 
sentence. 

Remember to say: It is 7. It is she. Who are they? 

It may be he. The happiest ones were we. 

The subjective complement is always a part of the base. 

Examples: 

1. The flowers are withered. Base: flowers are withered. 

2. His name is Alexander. Base : name is Alexander. 

Under line the bases in these sentences: 

1. It was perfectly white. 

2. We are very glad. 

3. Her husband is a postman. 

4. The sail down the river was pleasant. 

5. Two of the stories were very exciting. 

6. Which are they? 

7. That book on the table is his. 

8. It is a warm day in July. 

9. Richard Harding Davis is a good writer. 

10. The former secretary’s troubles are now yours. 

11. The King is dead. 

12. “These are my jewels.” 

13. It may be too late tomorrow. 

14. The vacation seems short. 

15. Delays are dangerous. 

16. These are our greatest triumphs. 

Write ten sentences of your own that contain a noun 
or an adjective used as a subjective complement. Read 
your sentences to your classmates and call on them to 
give the bases. 


6 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


4. Study of Third Type of Base 

The third type of base is that which consists of subject, 
verb, direct object. 

The noun or pronoun that names the person or thing 
that receives the action of the verb, is the direct object. 

The direct object is always in the objective case. This 
is especially important to remember when the object of 
the verb is a pronoun. Remember to say: 

I saw her. We like them. We passed them on the road. 

She helped me. He took us to San Juan in his car. 

The indirect object names the person or thing for whose 
benefit the action was performed on the direct object. 

Examples: 

1. He gave it to me. 

2. She told them the truth. 

The indirect object is not a part of the base. It is 
always the principal word in a prepositional phrase that 
modifies the verb. Sometimes the preposition is expressed, 
as in the first example; often it is understood as in the 
second. 

Find the bases of the following sentences: 

1 . I could see the sentinel near the door. Base: 1 could 
see sentinel. 

2. Silver tossed me the paper. 

3. The buccaneer tossed something to Silver. 

4. I could scarcely close my eyes 

5. Now, at last, I had my chance. 

6. With one hand I caught the jib-boom. 

7. The rogues swallowed the home-thrust in silence. 

8. I readily gave the pledge required. 

9. Silver struck the barrel with his open hand. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


7 


10. I want none of your money. 

11. Jim slipped the bolt at once. 

12. Give me the key. 

13. We found nothing of any value. 

14. My mother got a candle in the bar. 

15. The blind man cursed the money. 

From some recent reading material, find, on any three 
pages (chosen by the teacher), as many sentences as pos¬ 
sible that have this base: subject, verb, direct object. 


5. Study of Fourth Type of Base 

This base consists of subject, verb, direct object, and 
objective complement. 

In Lesson 3 we said that the word that completes the 
meaning of the verb by describing or explaining the sub¬ 
ject, is called the subjective complement; so we can easily 
see why the word that completes the meaning of the verb 
by describing or explaining the direct object, should be 
called the objective complement. When the objective com¬ 
plement describes the object, it is an adjective; when it 
explains the direct object, it is a noun. 

Examples: 

1. They called her Sara. 

The direct object is her; the objective complement is Sara. 

2. They considered the laws just. 

The direct object is laws; just completes the verb and 
describes the direct object; therefore it is the objective 
complement. 

Since it is not a modifier, but a word that completes 
the verb, the objective complement is always a part of 
the base. 


8 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Examples: 

1. We called him an honest man. Base : We called him man. 

2. The boys elected Ned cheer-leader. Base: boys elected 
Ned cheer-leader. 

Underline the bases of these sentences: 

1. A thermos bottle keeps coffee hot. 

2. Age makes a man feeble. 

3. The King made Alfred Tennyson a baronet. 

4. Call your horse “Pershing.” 

5. Some make money their chief object in life. 

6. Mountain ranges keep large areas deserts. 

7. A war makes men more patriotic. 

8. The Senate made Caesar Perpetual Dictator. 

9. The company has appointed Mr. Gray its agent in Porto 
Rico. 

10. Dry weather has made lettuce dear. 

11. Have the lunch ready on time. 

12. The President named the Hon. Horace M. Towner 
Governor of Porto Rico. 

13. Time makes memories less sad. 

14. They declared the captain an impostor. 

15. His work made him happy. 

Make a list of ten verbs that you can use in sentences 
with objects and objective complements; exchange your 
lists in class and make sentences using the verbs on the 
lists you receive. 

Read your sentences in class, and call on the pupils to 
give their bases. 

6. The Base of a Simple Sentence 

A simple sentence is one that contains only one subject 
and only one predicate. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


9 


Examples: 

1. He thought a while before answering. 

2. The steamer reaches port tomorrow afternoon. 

3. Your reading should be smooth. 

Analyze the following sentences, using the model given: 

1. The book contains selections from Sir Walter Scott. 
Base : book contains selections. All other words are modifiers. 

2. A third day he had to go farther afield. 

3. All of us had an ample share of the treasure. 

4. The captain made a fair division of the booty. 

5. The sea-cook had not gone empty-handed. 

6. Captain Smollett is now retired from the sea. 

7. The next morning we began work early. 

8. We cast anchor just at sundown. 

9. There was an echo. 

10. The song stopped suddenly. 

Sometimes the subject of a simple sentence consists of 
several words, forming what is called a compound sub¬ 
ject, as: 

The friends and relatives were all present at the wedding. 

The base of that sentence could be friends and relatives 
were present. 

And sometimes the predicate of a simple sentence may 
contain several verbs, forming a compound predicate, as: 

The plants grew and developed daily. 

The base of that sentence would be plants grew and 
developed. A simple sentence may contain both a com¬ 
pound subject and a compound predicate: 

Men, wives and children stare, cry out and run. 

The base is the whole sentence, as it contains no 
modifiers. 

Underline the bases of these sentences: 


10 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


1. He must be taught and trained and bid go forth. 

2. Tom gave up the brush with reluctance in his face. 

3. He took up the brush and went tranquilly to work. 

4. France, England, Italy, and Belgium were allies. 

5. Tom appeared on the sidewalk with a bucket of white¬ 
wash. 

6. A perfectly white elephant has never been seen. 

7. They were married at “The Little Church Around the 
Corner.” 

8. Old and young fought in the war and helped to defeat 
Germany. 

9. We crossed the creek at the head of the island and pro¬ 
ceeded through a desolate country. 

10. Jupiter, the dog, and myself started about four o’clock. 

11. We dug very steadily for two hours. 

12. Legrand strode up to Jupiter and seized him by the 
collar. 

13. No signs of any treasure became manifest. 

14. Jupiter picked the parchment, wrapped the beetle in it, 
and gave it to me. 

15. In this expedition I had been attended by Jupiter. 

From some text already read in class, choose several 
pages in which to find simple sentences. Find some with 
a compound subject, and others with a compound predi¬ 
cate, if possible. Read your sentences in class, calling on 
the other pupils to give the bases. 

7. The Base of a Compound Sentence 

A compound sentence is one that consists of two or more 
independent clauses. 

A clause is a part of a sentence that has a subject and 
a predicate of its own. 

An independent clause is one that, by itself, could express 
a complete thought. If it were not a part of a sentence, it 
might even be called a sentence in itself. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


11 


Examples: 

1. Kipling is a friend of the brave man everywhere, but he is 
especially the friend of the British soldier. 

2. Earl Douglas was buried at the broken bush, and the 
Percy was led away captive. 

Each clause of a compound sentence has its own base; 
therefore the base of the first example is Kipling is friend 
but he is friend; and of the second, Earl Douglas was buried, 
and the Percy was led captive. 

Note to the Teacher. — Pupils may have been 
taught in previous years to define a compound sentence 
as one consisting of two or more coordinate clauses. As, 
of course, it is possible for two subordinate clauses to be 
coordinate also, that definition is incomplete and confus¬ 
ing and its use should not be allowed. 

Underscore the bases of these sentences: 

1. The owl sat blinking and goggling all day in a hole in the 
wall, but he roamed forth at night. 

2. She was surrounded by female attendants, and no flower 
of the field or garden could compare with her in loveliness. 

3. Day after day he watched for the return of the messenger 
of love, but he watched in vain. 

4. It was doubtless the unknown beauty of the garden, 
but who and where was she? 

5. The walls had been painted in fresco in the Italian style, 
but the paintings were nearly obliterated. 

6. Their espousals doubtless were celebrated in the royal 
palace, and their honeymoon may have passed among these 
very bowers. 

7. I attempted to open the door, but it was locked. 

8. The mosque still exists, but the monument has dis¬ 
appeared. 

9. Yusef made signs to his attendants, but his words were 
unintelligible. 


12 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


10. Yusef obtained a long truce after this defeat, and now his 
character shone forth in its true lustre. 

11. The long truce was at an end, and every effort of Yusef 
to renew it was unsuccessful. 

12. His manners were gentle, affable, and urbane, and he 
carried the benignity of his nature into warfare. 

13. James the Conqueror had subjected all Valencia, and 
Ferdinand the Saint sat down in person before Jaen. 

14. He is known in Arabian history as Muhamed Ibn- 
Ahmar, but his name in general is written simply Alhamar. 

15. At his birth the astrologers cast his horoscope and pro¬ 
nounced it highly auspicious, and a santon predicted for him a 
glorious career. 

16. Alhamar was the leader and general of the Beni Nasar, 
and he opposed and thwarted the ambition of Aben Hud. 

8. The Base of a Complex Sentence 

A complex sentence is composed of an independent clause 
and one or more subordinate clauses. 

A subordinate clause is always a modifier of some word 
in the independent clause; therefore, although it has a 
subject and verb of its own, the subordinate clause is 
never a part of the base of a sentence. When the sub¬ 
ordinate clause modifies a noun or pronoun, of course it 
is doing the work of an adjective; and when it modifies 
a verb, adjective, or adverb, it does the work of an adverb. 

The base of the independent clause will be the only 
base in a complex sentence. 

Analyze these sentences. Two of them have more than 
one subordinate clause. Name the independent clause 
and give the base. Name the subordinate clause and 
classify it as an adjective or an adverb. 

Model 

In old times, many hundred years ago, there was a Moorish 
King who reigned over the Kingdom of Granada. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 13 

(a) Independent clause: In old times, many hundred years 
ago, there was a Moorish King. 

( h ) Base: there was King. 

(c) Subordinate clause: who reigned over the Kingdom of 
Granada. It is used as an adjective because it describes the 
noun King. 

1. While Habuz was harassed by these perplexities, an 
ancient Arabian physician arrived at his court. 

2. He had, when a child, followed the conquering army of 
Amru into Egypt. 

3. In a little while the sage Ibrahim became the bosom 
counsellor of the King, who applied to him for advice in every 
emergency. 

4. Whenever the country was threatened with invasion, 
the ram would turn in the direction of the enemy and the cock 
would crow. 

5. In the centre of the central pyramid is a sepulchral 
chamber in which is enclosed the mummy of the high priest who 
aided in rearing that stupendous pile. 

6. When I heard these words of the Egyptian priest, my 
heart burned to get possession of that book. 

7. I penetrated into the very heart of the pyramid where 
the mummy of the high priest has lain for ages. 

8. He caused a great tower to be erected upon the top of 
the royal palace, which stood on the brow of the hill. 

9. While the philosophic Ibrahim passed his time in his 
hermitage, the pacific Aben Habuz carried on his furious cam¬ 
paigns in effigy in his tower. 

10. Around her neck was a golden chain, to which was sus¬ 
pended a silver lyre, which hung by her side. 

11. This may be one of those northern sorceresses of whom 
we have heard. 

12. When a lover is old, he is generally generous. 

13. Whenever he began to plead his love, she struck her 
silver lyre. 

14. In the neighborhood he met an aged dervise, who was 
learned in the traditions and secrets of the land. 


14 THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 

15. My reward will be the first animal which enters the 
magic gateway. 

These sentences came from The Alhambra . Take your 
Alhambra and find twenty complex sentences in the story 
“The Pilgrim of Love.” Write several of them on the 
blackboard to be analyzed orally by the other pupils. 
Follow the model given in this lesson. 

9. The Base of a Compound-Complex Sentence 

A compound-complex sentence contains two or more in¬ 
dependent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. 
The subordinate clause always does the work of an ad¬ 
jective or an adverb by modifying some word in one of 
the independent clauses. 

Examples: 

The princess looked down haughtily from her palfrey and a 
smile of scorn curled her rosy lip when she heard this dispute. 

Analysis: 

1. First independent clause: The princess looked down 
haughtily from her palfrey. Base : princess looked down. 

2. Second independent clause: a smile of scorn curled her 
rosy lip. Base: smile curled lip. 

3. Subordinate clause: when she heard this dispute. It 
tells when she looked down, therefore it is used as adverb, and 
modifies the verb looked. 

Analyze the following sentences, using the model given: 

1. The earth closed over them and no trace remained of the 
opening by which they had descended. 

2. Aben Habuz sought the mouth of the cavern at the foot 
of the hill that led to the subterranean palace of the astrolo¬ 
ger, but he could not find it. 

3. The old invalid sentinels who mount guard at the gate 
hear the strains and doze quietly at their posts. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


15 


4. King Aben Habuz approached the seeming chess-board 
on which were arranged the small wooden effigies and, to his 
surprise, they began to move. 

5. The rival princes surrounded him with haughty and men¬ 
acing aspects and one of them sneered at his light and youthful 
form, and laughed when he heard his amorous appellation. 

6. To the dismay of Ahmed, he was borne full tilt against 
the King as soon as he entered the lists, and in a moment the 
royal heels were in the air. 

7. When I reached the tower, a very ancient owl was lectur¬ 
ing upon the inscription on the list of the box, and he proved 
that the coffer contained the silken carpet of the throne of 
Solomon the Wise. 

8. The prince dyed his complexion to a tawny hue, and no 
one could have recognized in him the splendid warrior who had 
caused such admiration and dismay at the tournament. 

9. When Peregil finished his task, the hour was late, and 
most of the water carriers had desisted from their toils. 

10. They rolled the body of the Moslem in the mat on 
which he had died, laid it across the ass, and Peregil set out 
with it for the banks of the river. 

Convert the sentences in Lesson 7 into compound- 
complex sentences by adding a suitable subordinate clause 
to each. 

10. The Base of a Sentence that Contains an Appositive 

An appositive is a noun or pronoun that accompanies 
another noun or pronoun to explain its meaning. 

Example: Darwin, the scientist, was born in England. 
The noun scientist explains what Darwin is meant; there¬ 
fore it is in apposition with the noun Darwin. 

Since the appositive bears the same relation to the other 
words of the sentence, that the word bears, with which it 
is in apposition, it is always in the same case, as the word 
with which it is in apposition. 


16 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


The appositive is usually separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commas. 

If the appositive is in apposition with a word that forms 
part of the base of the sentence, the appositive also is 
included in the base. 

Examples: 

1. In that delightful island, Porto Rico, we spent two months. 
Base: We spent months. 

Note: The appositive Porto Rico is not a part of the base 
because it is in apposition with island, which is the principal 
word of a modifying phrase. 

2. Shakespeare, the poet, was a contemporary of Cervantes. 
Base: Shakespeare , poet, was contemporary. 

Underline the bases of these sentences: 

1. The Alhambra, that beautiful palace of the Moorish 
Kings, was begun by Alhamar in the middle of the fifteenth 
century. 

2. Samuel Johnson, the man who compiled the first English 
dictionary, was quite eccentric. 

3. Washington, the capital of the United States, was named 
after Washington, the first president. 

4. Brunswick, a city of Georgia, should not be confused with 
New Brunswick, a city of New Jersey. 

5. The tourists visited San Juan, the capital of the island. 

6. The world’s longest rivers, the Mississippi, the Amazon, 
and the Nile, are found in North America, South America, and 
Africa, respectively. 

7. The Koran, the Bible of the Moslem faith, contains many 
things from our own Bible. 

8. The shark, a man-eating fish, is often called the ocean 
scavenger. 

9. One of the greatest inventors in the world’s history, 
Thomas Edison, is still living. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 17 

10. In Athens we saw the Parthenon, the ruins of an ancient 
Grecian temple. 

11. Borinquen, the Indian name of Porto Rico, is the title 
of the island’s Hymn. 

12. In the cathedral in San Juan lies the dust of Ponce de 
Leon, the conqueror and first colonizer of Porto Rico. 

Make a list of ten words that can be used easily with 
appositives. Exchange fists and make sentences. Read 
your sentences aloud, calling on your classmates for the 
base of each. 

11. Bases of Sentences that Contain a Noun Clause 

A noun clause is just what its name implies: a clause 
used as a noun; which means that the clause as a whole 
can be used in any way that a noun can be used: as 
subject, as direct object, as subjective complement, as the 
object of a preposition, as objective complement, or in 
apposition with a noun or pronoun. If the noun clause 
occupies a place in the sentence that entitles it to be called 
a part of the base, then it is a part of the base. To belong 
to the base of the sentence in which it occurs, a noun 
clause must be either the subject, or the direct object, 
the subjective complement, or in apposition with a noun 
or pronoun that is used as subject or as subjective com¬ 
plement, or as objective complement. 

Examples: 

1. On entering the room, he said that he had been there before. 
Base : he said that he had been there before. 

The noun clause that he had been there before is the direct 
object of the verb said. 

2. No dependence is to be placed in what he says. Base: 
dependence is to be placed. 

The noun clause what he says is not a part of the base because 


18 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


it is the object of a preposition that introduces a modifying 
phrase. 

3. Whosoever wishes may enter the Museum free on Tues¬ 
days and Thursdays. Base: Whosoever wishes may enter Mu¬ 
seum. 

The noun clause whosoever wishes is the subject. 

4. It has not been decided that Prohibition is a failure. 
Base: It (that Prohibition is a failure) has been decided. 

5. A difficult question to decide is just what ought to be 
done. Base : question is just what ought to be done. 

The noun clause is a part of the base because it is the sub¬ 
jective complement. 

Find the base of the following sentences, using the ex¬ 
amples given as models: 

1. He could not deny that he was mistaken. 

2. What first strikes the eye of the reader will repel or 
attract. 

3. We have often heard that “he laughs best who laughs 
last.” 

4. The difficulty was that we could find no one to explain 
the mystery. 

5. “ Tell me not in mournful numbers, 

Life is but an empty dream.” 

6. It is probable that Porto Rico will elect her own governor 
in 1932. 

7. Do you know who he is? 

8. There is no excuse for what he did. 

9. Some people cling to the idea that women should not 
vote. 

10. What should have been done long ago has at last been 
done. 

Choose several pages of recent reading material and find 
therein as many sentences as possible that con tan a noun 
clause. Underline the base; classify the noun clause as 
to its use in the sentence. 


BASES OF SENTENCES 


19 


12. Bases of Sentences that Begin There are 
or There is 

It is interesting to notice that we have in English a 
construction parallel to that in Spanish of “habfa” and 
“hay.” There are hooks on the table means exactly the 
same as what is meant in Spanish by “Hay libros en la 
mesa.” The only difference is that in English we use the 
word there with the verb and in Spanish the whole idea 
is expressed in the verb itself. 

So, since there is really a part of the impersonal verb, 
it forms part of the base of the sentence in which it occurs. 

Example: 

There are many beautiful flowers in the garden. Base: 
flowers there are . 

Give the bases of the following sentences. Two of the 
sentences are of a different kind. 

1. There was much suffering in Europe from lack of food. 

2. In the nest there are fifteen eggs. 

3. There is no place like home. 

4. Here there are no difficulties to encounter. 

5. There were many adventurous knights in the Middle 
Ages. 

6. There were no automobiles thirty years ago. 

7. On the desk there is a fine book for you. 

8. There is often too much rain for the garden. 

9. There were found no kind hearts to help him. 

10. There are several bushels of peaches on that tree. 

11. There are the grapes in the basket. 

12. There are grapes in the basket. 

On about ten small slips of paper write the names of 
something and there is , there are , there was, etc.; give 
them out one slip at a time to your classmates, requir- 


20 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


ing them to respond instantly with a sentence using the 
given noun and verb. 

Allow no hesitation. Require the base to be given after 
each sentence. 

SECTION B —MODIFIERS 

1. Adjectives 

Modifiers, as Julius Caesar said of Gaul, are divided 
into three parts: 

1. Single words, or adjectives, and adverbs. 

2. Phrases, that are used as adjectives, or adverbs. 

3. Subordinate clauses, that are used also as adjectives 
and adverbs. 

Since the work of a modifier is to change the meaning 
of some word in the base by making it express its meaning 
more accurately and clearly, any modifier may be calle’d 
an added idea: that is, an idea added to the base or main 
idea of the sentence. In this lesson let us consider the 
single words that modify nouns and pronouns. We call 
those words adjectives. 

An adjective is a word that points out, describes, or in 
any way limits the meaning of a noun or pronoun. 

Examples: 

1. This apple is good. 

2. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. 

3. “Spare your country’s flag,” she said. 

4. Throw me the rope. 

Analyze the following sentences, using this model. 

Model 

1. The tired horse drinks the cool water. Base: horse 
drinks water. 


MODIFIERS 


21 


Modifiers: 

(a) the shows that it is a particular horse; therefore it is an 
adjective. 

(b) tired describes the horse; therefore it is an adjective. 

(c) the points out the water; therefore it is an adjective. 

(d) cool describes. .. ; therefore it is an adjective. 

2. The profound stillness was impressive. 

3. He lost his life in a railroad wreck. 

4. This is the worst ink! 

5. The lovely spring-time green of the trees is a great joy. 

6. Physical Geography is an interesting subject. 

7. There was great excitement during the earthquakes. 

8. The quaint old Quaker town, Philadelphia, was all excited. 

9. Did you like the Christmas pasteles? 

10. He brought many botanical specimens. 

11. Honest endeavor will be rewarded. 

12. A new broom sweeps clean. 

13. Tired and half-sick, he went home. 

14. The new, wide San Antonio bridge, will aid traffic. 

15. The San Lorenzo is a good fast boat. 

Note : In several of the sentences in the exercise above 
opportunity is given the teacher to call pupils’ attention 
to the fact that no word is in itself a noun, or adjective; 
that the nature of a word is determined by its function 
in the sentence. 

Build sentences with bases given below by adding 
modifiers. 

Example: 

Base: library contains books. 

Modifiers: 

(a) Adjective to point out a particular library. 

( b ) Adjective to tell what library. 

(c) Adjective to limit the number of books. 

(d) Adjective to describe the looks. 


22 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


1. cows eat hay 

2. desks are high 

3. men were safe 

4. boys were playing 

5. ship arrived 

6. hats were lost 

7. flood came 

8. earthquake destroyed town 

9. principal called boy 

10. pupils like studies 

11. rabbits have ears 

12. trolley was wrecked 

13. man worked and saved money 

14. hope was lost 

15. war began 

16. animal and men fled 

17. student understood reason 

18. enemies and friends rejoiced 

19. season has begun 

20. bells rang 


2. Adverbs 

An adverb is a word that tells how, when, or where, 
something is done. 

Examples: 

1. The work was carefully done. 

2. The work was done yesterday. 

3. The work was done here. 

An adverb usually modifies a verb, but adverbs of de¬ 
gree may modify an adjective or an adverb. 

Example: 1. The work was done very carefully. 

When a noun does the work of an adverb it is called an 
adverbial noun. 


MODIFIERS 


23 


Examples: 

1. He worked an hour. 

2. He ran a mile. 

(Adverbial nouns are always in the objective case.) 
Analyze the following sentences, using model given: 

I. The trees lifted their dry branches drearily. 

Model 

Base: trees lifted branches. 

Modifiers: 

(a) the is a word that points out particular trees; therefore it 
is an adjective. 

(b) their is a word that limits branches by telling to what they 
belong; therefore it is an adjective. 

(c) drearily is a word that tells how the branches were lifted; 
therefore it is an adverb. 

2. The huge balloon swayed lightly to and fro. 

3. The stately ship sailed steadily on. 

4. The harbor light burned brightly. 

5. I will lift up my eyes. 

6. That clock stopped yesterday. 

7. That examination was held here. 

8. We were very much disappointed. 

9. He believed the fairy story implicitly. 

10. Silver deceived the Squire thoroughly. 

II. Absolutely thoughtless, has he always been. 

12. The robber easily halted the automobile. 

13. The wastebasket is completely full. 

14. The stove has a broken place underneath. 

15. He never could write legibly. 

Build sentences with the bases given below by adding 
modifiers. Use the model given for the first base. (Bases 
taken from The Alhambra , “The Legend of the Moor's 
Legacy.") 

1. Light burned. 


24 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Model 

Base: light burned . 

Modifiers: 

(a) Adjective to point out the light. 

(b) Adjective to describe the light. 

(c) Adverb to tell how the light burned. 

Sentence: The bright light burned steadily. 

2. fountains and wells were gossiping-places 

3. maidservants may be seen 

4. There was fellow (fellow there was) 

5. streets rang 

6. He helped Moor 

7. Moor was seized 

8. he opened cloak and showed box 

9. thought struck him 

10. wife aided him 

Select bases from the biography of Washington Irving 
which, when developed by modifiers, will tell the story of 
his life. 

3. Phrases as Modifiers 

A phrase is a group of related words that has no subject 
or verb of its own. 

Phrases are classified, or divided, in two ways: accord¬ 
ing to form and according to use. The classification of a 
phrase according to form is always determined by the 
word that introduces it; this introductory word is always 
a preposition or a participle (either present or past), a 
gerund or an infinitive verb. Therefore, according to 
form, a phrase is said to be prepositional , or participial , 
or infinitive. 

The classification of a phrase according to form helps 
us to recognize the phrase; but far more important is the 
classification according to use. 


MODIFIERS 


25 


Prepositional phrases may be used as adjectives or as 
adverbs. 

Participial phrases may be used as adjectives. 

Infinitive phrases may be used as nouns, as adjectives, 
or as adverbs. 

Examples: 

(а) Prepositional phrases: 

The clattering of their horses’ hoofs echoed from rock to rock. 

(б) Participial phrases: 

Beckoning to the cavaliers, he struck off from the road, (as 
adjective) 

Having run aground, the ship was in great danger. 

The reporter, much interested in the story, took the child to 
his home, (as adjective) 

Notifying the candidates of their success was left until the 
last, (as noun) 

We gained several days by being at the place on time. 

(c) Infinitive phrases: 

To live his own life, unmolested, is the right of every man. 
(as noun) 

I have a house to rent you. (as adjective) 

Juan must go now to carry the message, (adverb) 

When you are writing a theme, begin some of your 
sentences with a phrase; if the order is always subject- 
verb! subject-verb! like soldiers marching, the effect is 
monotonous. Pleasant variety may be gained by letting 
some sentences begin with a phrase. When a phrase is 
out of its natural order, do not forget to separate it from 
the rest of the sentence by a comma. 

Copy the following sentences, underscoring each phrase; 
doublescore the word that introduces it, and be ready to 
classify each phrase according to form and use: 


26 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


1. At length, one day the talismanic horseman veered sud¬ 
denly around, and, lowering his lance, made a dead point 
toward the mountain of Guadix. 

2. Not a single warrior was in motion. 

3. Perplexed at the circumstance, Aben Habuz sent forth a 
troop of horsemen to scour the mountains. 

4. They returned after three days’ absence. 

5. They had found a Christian damsel of surpassing beauty, 
sleeping beside a fountain. 

6. The beautiful damsel was accordingly conducted into 
the King’s presence. 

7. The flashes of her dark eyes were like sparks of fire on 
the withered yet combustible heart of Aben Habuz. 

8. Aben Habuz saw no harm in the damsel; she was fair to 
look upon, and found favor in his eyes. 

9. Doubtless this was the enemy pointed out by the talis¬ 
man. 

10. His only study was how to render himself amiable in 
the eyes of the Gothic beauty. 

The sentences in the preceding exercise were taken from 
the story “The Arabian Astrologer,” in The Alhambra. 
Look through that story and find a number of sentences 
that begin with phrases. Rewrite the sentences, inserting 
the phrases in their natural order. Be ready to discuss 
the effect produced by the change. 

4. Phrases that Do the Work of Adjectives 

An r adjective phrase is one that modifies a noun or 
pronoun. 

In form, an adjective phrase may be participial, prepo¬ 
sitional, or infinitive. 

Find the base and added ideas of each sentence that 
follows. Arrange your work in this way: 

1. The paw of the lion was hurt. 


MODIFIERS 


27 


Model 

Base : paw was hurt. 

Modifiers: 

(a) the, a word that points out a particular paw; therefore 
it is an adjective. 

( b ) of the lion, a prepositional phrase that describes paw; 
therefore it is an adjective. 

2. Mohamed rode forth one day with a train of his courtiers. 

3. They were conducting a long string of mules laden with 
spoil and many captives of both sexes. 

4. A beautiful damsel, richly attired, sat weeping and 
heeded not the consoling words of her duenna. 

5. She was the daughter of the Alcalde of a frontier fortress. 

6. The vigilance of the captain-general was aroused. 

7. A mountain of written testimony was diligently heaped 
up. 

8. He then sent down a flag of truce. 

9. The governor dispatched a message demanding the 
release of the corporal. 

10. He received orders to take up all suspicious persons. 

11. The soldiers beheld a sturdy sunburnt fellow, clad in 
the ragged garb of a foot-soldier, leading a powerful Arabian 
horse. 

12. Astonished at the sight of a strange soldier, the corporal 
stepped forth and questioned him. 

13. Having answered (perfect participle) the questions of 
the patrol, the soldier seemed to consider himself entitled to 
make others in return. 

14. I have some strange matters to reveal to the governor. 

Build sentences from the bases given below, by adding 
modifiers. Let the added ideas be either single words or 
adjective phrases. 

1. Kingdom is one 

2. You can see decorations 

3. Muleteer has stock 


28 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


4. Talent is inherited 

5. Form betokens strength 

6. Author made expedition 

7. Plains derive interest 

8. We took precautions 

9. There is romance 

10. We retained clothing and necessaries 

11. Steeds were provided 

12. Highway is traversed 

13. Alcala supplies Seville * 

14. We ordered bread 

15. Curate gathered bouquet 

6. Phrases that Do the Work of Adverbs 

An adverb phrase is one that modifies a verb, adjective, or 
adverb. It is introduced by an infinitive or a preposition. 

A participial phrase is always an adjective. 

Find the bases and added ideas of the following sen¬ 
tences, using the model analysis: 

1. The astonished burglar climbed hastily through the 
window to escape his pursuers. 

Model 

Base : burglar climbed. 

Modifiers: 

(a) the is a word that points out a particular burglar; there¬ 
fore it is an adjective. 

{b) astonished is a word that describes the burglar; therefore 
it is an adjective. 

(c) hastily is a word that tells how he climbed; therefore it 
is an adverb. 

(d) through the window is a prepositional phrase that shows 
where he climbed; therefore it is an adverb. 

(e) to escape his pursuers is an infinitive phrase that tells his 
purpose for climbing through the window; therefore it is an 
adverb. 


MODIFIERS 


29 


2. At Gandul we found a tolerable posada. 

3. Here we were joined by a fat curate. 

4. Below the palace was the mill, with orange trees and 
aloes in front, and a pretty stream of pure water. 

5. We took a seat in the shade, and the millers, all leaving 
their work, sat down and smoked with us. 

6. The Guardaira winds its stream round the hill. 

7. A picturesque bridge was thrown across the little river. 

8. The old Moorish mills, so often found in secluded streams, 
are characteristic objects in the Spanish landscape. 

9. Taking leave of our Seville friends and leaving the millers 
still under the hands of the barber, we set off to ride across the 
campina. 

10. The miquelets were patrolling the country to ferret out 
robbers. 

11. Mine host, with two or three old wise-acre comrades in 
brown cloaks, studied our passports in a corner of the posada. 

12. The passports were in foreign languages and perplexed 
them, but our squire Sancho assisted them in their studies. 

13. We distributed cigars to win their confidence. 

14. Everyone seemed anxious to make us welcome. 

15. The corregidor himself waited upon us, and a great rush- 
bottomed arm chair was ostentatiously bolstered into our room 
by our landlady, for the accommodation of that important 
personage. 

16. We took our seats with mine host and hostess and the 
commander of the patrol under an archway opening into the 
court. 

Build sentences, using the following bases by adding 
modifiers. Let some of your phrases be introduced by 
infinitives and some by participles; don’t make them all 
prepositional. Begin several of your sentences with a 
phrase, and remember to punctuate them properly. 

1. He rapped 

2. he hung 

3. he sat 


30 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


4. he would blow and stare 

5. I would see him 

6. he would slap hand 

7. he must have lived life 

8. people were frightened but liked it 

9. Captain brightened up 

10. Captain glared 

11. Ell take means 

12. I’ll have eye 

13. Captain held place 

14. battle followed 

Turn to the chapter “The Journey,” in The Alhambra; 
find ten sentences that contain phrases used as adjec¬ 
tives, and ten that contain adverb phrases. 

6. Bases of Sentences that Contain Noun Phrases 

Review Lesson 3, page 4. 

A noun 'phrase may be used as the subject of a sentence, 
as direct object, as subjective complement, in apposition 
with a noun or pronoun, as object of a preposition; in 
short, it may be used in any way that a noun may be 
used. 

When a noun phrase is used as subject, direct object, 
subjective complement, or objective complement, it is a 
part of the base of the sentence in which it occurs. 

Examples: 

1. To be or not to be, that is the question. Base: To be or 
not to be, that is question. 

Infinitive in form, the phrase to be or not to be is a noun be¬ 
cause it is used in apposition with the subject that. 

2. He wanted to go home. Base: The whole sentence, 
because to go home is a noun phrase used as direct object of 
the verb wanted. 


MODIFIERS 


31 


3. He declared it to be necessary. 

Base: The whole sentence, because to be necessary is a noun 
phrase used as objective complement. 

4. Selling pencils or shoelaces is a common occupation for a 
blind man. 

Base: Selling 'pencils or shoelaces is occupation. 

Selling pencils or shoelaces is a noun (or gerund) phrase used 
as subject of the sentence. 

Find the bases of the following sentences. Classify all 
noun phrases as to form (infinitive or gerund) and as 
to use. 

1. He preferred death to betraying his trust. 

2. Running races is a favorite sport of small boys. 

3. Our desire is to learn English. 

4. I knew him to be the new teacher. 

5. Dancing gracefully is an art. 

6. He did not want to go away. 

7. Englishmen like to play cricket, and Americans like to 
play baseball. 

8. The English Club discussed electing new officers. 

9. It was interesting to visit the old Spanish-English battle¬ 
field on St. Simon’s Island near Brunswick. 

10. To be honest is not a virtue. 

11. Making promises is not keeping them. 

12. She prefers sitting quietly on the outside. 

13. We were weary with watching the game so long. 

14. From having been a famous singer, she came at last to 
begging on the streets. 

15. He understood everything but teaching school. 

16. Having once been exiled has made President Leguia of 
Peru careful. 


7. Clauses that Are Used as Adjectives 

An adjective clause is one that does the work of an 
adjective: that is, it points out or describes a noun or 


32 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


pronoun. An adjective clause is also called a relative clause 
because it is always introduced by a relative pronoun. The 
relative pronouns are who, which, and that. Note: See 
Pronouns, page 65. 

The noun or pronoun in the independent clause that is 
modified by the adjective clause, is called the antecedent of 
the relative pronoun that introduces the adjective clause. 

Examples: 

1. The house that stood on the corner was burned. 

The house was burned is the independent clause; that stood on 
the corner is an adjective clause introduced by the relative pro¬ 
noun that. The antecedent of that is house; that stood on the 
corner is used as an adjective because it points out a particular 
house. 

2. I sent the dress back to the store from which it had come. 

I sent the dress back to the store is the independent clause; 

from which it had come is the relative or adjective clause intro¬ 
duced by the relative pronoun which. The antecedent of which 
is store; from which it had come is used as an adjective because 
it points out a particular store. 

Analyze the following sentences by finding the base and 
added ideas of each. 

1. The boy who has an honest face is trusted. 

Model 

Base: boy is trusted. 

Modifiers: 

(а) the is a word used to point out a particular boy; therefore 
it is an adjective. 

(б) who has an honest face is a clause that describes the boy; 
therefore it is an adjective. 

2. Sancho solaced himself with that which remained in the 
alforjas. 


MODIFIERS 33 

3. The hostess was a dry old woman who looked like a 
mummy. 

4. Crossing a gentle river, we approached the city between 
hedges and gardens in which nightingales were pouring forth 
their evening song. 

5. I strolled to the ruins of the Moorish castle which had 
been reared on the ruins of a Roman fortress. 

6. The market-place was beginning to throng with the 
populace who traffic in the abundant produce of the vega. 

7. Our road passed round the Rock of the Lovers which rose 
in a precipice above us. 

8. A solitary beggar approached who had almost the look 
of a pilgrim. 

9. He addressed us with the grave courtesy that is charac¬ 
teristic of the lowest Spaniard. 

10. The old man was on his way to his native place, Archi- 
dona, which was in full view on its steep and rugged mountain. 

11. The inn to which he conducted us was called the 
Corona. 

12. The Puerta del Rey was the pass by which King Ferdi¬ 
nand conducted his army. 

13. In the time of the French invasion, Don Venletra Rodri¬ 
guez surprised six troopers who were asleep. 

14. The last stories were from our handsome landlady, who 
gave a poetical account of the infernal regions of Loxa. 

15. The infantry, who lie in ambush within the defile, suffer 
the band of contrabandistas to pass. 

16. Out of yon gate, down yon hill, paraded the band of 
Spanish cavaliers to make that foray during the war and con¬ 
quest of Granada, which ended in the lamentable massacre 
among the mountains of Malaga. 

These sentences came from The Alhambra . Take your 
Alhambra and find, in the story called “The Three Beauti¬ 
ful Princesses,” twenty sentences that contain at least one 
adjective clause. Write several of them on the board, 
and call on your classmates to analyze them; let them 


34 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


give, also, the relative pronoun that introduces each one, 
and its antecedent. 

From the following bases build sentences by adding the 
modifiers indicated in the parentheses; vary the form of 
the phrases by letting some be introduced by an infinitive, 
others by a participle, and others by a preposition. 

1. ( Adjective) {adjective) lesson ( adj. clause ) was written 
(adverb phrase). 

2. ( Adv. phrase ) he arrived ( adv. phrase) {adj. clause). 

3. {Adv.) he would take {pos. pronoun) seat and improvise 
love ditties {adv. phrase) {adj. clause). 

4. {Adj. phrase) {adj.) boy saw {adv.) friend {adj. clause). 

5. {Adj.) {adj.) aeroplane, Los Angeles {adj. clause) was 
seen {adv. phrase). 

6. {Adv.) music {adj. clause) was heard {adv. phrase). 

7. {Adj.) nouns {adj. phrase) do {neg. adv.) follow {adj.) rule 
{adj. clause). 

8. {Adj.) {adj.) flowers and plants {adj. phrase) delight {adj.) 
tourists {adj. clause). 

9. {Adv. noun) {adj.) {adj.) {adj.) guagua {adj. clause) crosses 
island {adv. phrase). 

10. {Adj.) magazines and books {adj. clause) will help you 
{adv. phrase). 

Insert the following clauses in sentences in such a way 
that they do the work of adjectives: 

1. who were so glad to see us 

2. in which everyone is interested 

3. to whom I had spoken 

4. of whom you wrote 

5. who was every much surprised 

6. that had been there a long time 

7. with whom I visited 

8. who kept up the correspondence 

9. that seemed to be happy 


MODIFIERS 


35 


10. in whom we placed much confidence 

11. for whom they would do anything in their power 

12. who came to meet the commissioner 

8. Clauses that Do the Work of Adverbs 

A clause that does the work of an adverb is called an 
adverb clause; therefore an adverb clause modifies a verb, 
an adjective, or an adverb. 

Sometimes an adverb clause tells when the action of the 
main verb was performed; this is called a clause of time. 
A time clause is usually introduced by since, when, as soon 
as, while, etc. 

A clause that tells where is called a clause of place; it 
is introduced by where, whence, whither, etc. 

A clause that explains how the action of the main verb 
was performed is called a clause of manner; it is introduced 
by as, as if, as though, etc. 

A clause that indicates how much is called a clause of 
degree; it is introduced by as, that. 

A clause that explains for what purpose the action of the 
principal verb is performed is called a purpose clause; it 
is introduced by so that, that, in order that. 

A clause that shows that the action of the prin¬ 
cipal verb is carried out under certain circumstances is 
called a condition clause; it is introduced by if, since, as, 
unless. 

A clause that shows that the action of the principal 
verb is carried out in spite of conditions or circumstances 
is called a clause of concession, and is introduced by al¬ 
though, though, yet. 

A clause that indicates the result of the action of the 
principal verb is called a result clause, and is introduced 
by so that and so. 

A clause that indicates the reason for the action of the 


36 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


principal verb is called a cause clause; it is introduced by 
because , for, since. 

Copy the following sentences and underline the adverb 
clauses. Classify the clause according to the nine types 
explained above. Tell what word in the main clause of 
each sentence is modified by its respective adverb clause. 

1. Our next halting-place was at Gandul, where were the 
remains of another Moorish castle. 

2. While we were supping with our friend, we heard the 
notes of a guitar and the click of castanets. 

3. Our horses were tethered where they might crop the 
herbage. 

4. While we were diverting ourselves with Sancho’s simple 
drollery, a solitary beggar approached. 

5. He was crossing one of the great plains of Spain, where 
there were but few habitations. 

6. When almost dead with hunger, he applied at the door 
of a country inn. 

7. In the daytime the contrabandistas lie quiet in barrancas 
or at lonely farmhouses, where they are generally well received. 

8. If they descry a sail near the shore, they make a concerted 
signal. 

9. If the signal is answered, they descend to the shore and 
prepare for quick work. 

10. After the smuggled goods is thrown upon the shore, the 
contrabandistas clatter off to the mountain. 

11. They lay travellers under contribution until they have col¬ 
lected enough money to equip themselves in contrabandista style. 

12. Sancho lamented that the expedition was drawing to a 
close, for he could travel to the world’s end with such cavaliers. 

13. No one was permitted to enter the fortress with fire-arms 
unless he were of a certain rank. 

14. Whenever he descended into the city, it was in grand 
parade. 

15. As they approached the gate of the city, the corporal 
placed the banner of the Alhambra on the pack-saddle of the 
mule. 


MODIFIERS 


37 


16. The officer sprang forward and seized the halter of the 
mule, whereupon the corporal leveled his piece and shot him 
dead. 

17. The governor despatched a message demanding the sur¬ 
render of the corporal, as to him alone belonged the right of 
sitting in judgment on the offences of those who were under his 
command. 

18. The corporal was put in the chapel of the prison that he 
might meditate on his approaching end. 

19. The escribano had a downcast, dogged look, as if he 
still felt the halter around his neck. 

20. The escribano should not have been too certain of his 
safety, even though he had the law on his side. 

Give the bases and modifiers of the sentences in the 
preceding exercises using the model given below: 

1. As they approached the gate of the city, the corporal 
placed the banner of the Alhambra on the pack-saddle of one 
of the mules. 

Model 

Base: corporal placed banner. 

Modifiers: 

(a) as they approached the gate of the city , a clause that tells 
when the banner was placed; therefore it is used as an adverb. 

( b ) of the Alhambra, a prepositional phrase that describes 
the banner; therefore it is an adjective. 

(c) on the pack-saddle is a prepositional phrase that tells 
where the banner was placed; therefore it is an adverb. 

(<2) of one of the mules is a prepositional phrase that describes 
the pack-saddle; therefore it is an adjective. 

Find in Treasure Island, or The Alhambra, twenty sen¬ 
tences to read in class; let each sentence contain at least 
one adverbial clause. Read your sentences to your class¬ 
mates, calling on different ones to give the base of each 
sentence. 


PART TWO 


SECTION A —VERBAL ERRORS 

1. Verbs often Wrongly Used because some 
of their Forms are Similar 

Arouse and arose 

Arouse is a verb meaning “to excite to action from a 
state of rest; to stir; to rouse.” It is a regular verb; 
its principal parts are arouse, aroused, aroused. 

Examples: 

1. The whole country was aroused by the cruelty of the 
Turks in Armenia. 

2. I had not intended to arouse his anger. 

3. He is always very difficult to arouse from sleep. 

Arose is the past tense of the verb arise. It is irregular, 
its principal parts being arise, arose, arisen. It means 
“to ascend, to rise; to come into action, being, or notice.” 

Examples: 

1. Jane arose at the usual hour. 

2. Napoleon’s star arose when he married Josephine. 

3. There arose a great cry from the people when the roof of 
the burning house fell. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the cor¬ 
rect form of arouse or arise: 

1. The editor-from his chair. 

2. The Proclamation of Emancipation-much feeling. 

3. She seemed much-by the news. 

38 



VERBAL ERRORS 39 

4. A demand suddenly-for yeast and raisins after the 

prohibition amendment passed. 

5. War always-patriotism. 

6. All this has-from the fact that John did not tell the 

truth in the beginning. 

7. The whole country was-by the news of Lindbergh’s 

flight. 

8. She was so tired and sleepy that I did not-her for 

lunch. 

9. The senator-to open the meeting. 

10. Although very sleepy, I was thoroughly - by the 

clamor in the street. 

11. The sun-on a scene of desolation. 

12. Had you-when your sister arrived? 

13. The neighborhood was greatly-when it learned the 

truth. 

Feel, fall, fill 

Principal parts: 

To feel: feel, felt, felt. 

To fall: fall, fell, fallen. 

To fill: fill, filled, filled. 

The following sentences illustrate the correct use of 
these verbs: 

1. We sometimes feel discouraged. 

2. She filled the water bottle. 

3. He felt ashamed of his work. 

4. Antony fell in love with Cleopatra. 

5. The carpenter fell from the second story. 

6. We feel pity for old age. 

7. She feels cold after getting wet. 

8. I had never felt so sorry. 

9. Do you believe in falling in love at first sight? 

10. Mary fills the filter every day. 

11. It has fallen on the floor. 

12. Lancelot and Guinevere had fallen in love with each 
other before she saw the King. 


40 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Notice especially the idiom to fall in love; it is probably 
with this idiom that most mistakes in these verbs are 
made. 

1. He falls in love easily. 

2. He fell in love at first sight. 

3. He has fallen in love again. 

4. He will fall in love many times. 

5. He seems to be falling in love. 

6. He had fallen in love four times before he met his 
“fate.” 

Fill the blanks in the following practice sentences with 
some form of feel, fall, fill: 

1. The servant-the dishes with beans and rice. 

2. Is it possible John-in love again? 

3. Her eyes-with tears. 

4. I-sick all day. 

5. Mary is-her fountain pen. 

6. He had-upon his face. 

7. I had to-my way in the dark. 

8. Gareth-in love with Lynette. 

9. The baby always-asleep easily. 

10. I-asleep at ten o’clock. 

11. She-downstairs and broke her arm. 

12. I-glad when I heard that the void in my friend’s 

life was-because she had-in love. 

13. Just-his muscle! 

14. -the lamps. 

15. Diogenes-into a well. 

16. Night is-. 

17. We were-blue on account of the rain. 

18. I have always - thankful that George Washington 

was an American. 

19. The cashier-in the check for me. 

20. The darkness was so dense that it almost could 

be-. 








VERBAL ERRORS 


41 


Proceed and precede 

Proceed means “to go, pass, or move forward or on¬ 
ward; to issue or come forth as from a source; to ema¬ 
nate.” Its principal parts are proceed , proceeded, proceeded. 

Precede means “to be or go before in rank, importance, 
or order.” Its principal parts are precede, preceded, pre¬ 
ceded. 

Examples: 

1. This rule proceeds from the fact that there is a great deal 
of tardiness in the school. 

2. The work that is carefully planned proceeds smoothly. 

3. In my opinion, oral English should precede written 
English. 

4. At a diplomatic function in Washington, the President 
precedes the others from the room. 

Fill the blanks with forms of proceed and precede: 

1. Should the study of common fractions - that of 

decimal fractions? 

2. The professor-to explain the work fully. 

3. A gentleman should let a woman-him in getting into 

a guagua and should-her in getting down from it. 

4. -with your work. 

5. Accomplishment should-enjoyment. 

Led, left, let 

Led is the past tense of the verb to lead. The principal 
parts are lead, led, led. It means “to guide as with the 
hand; to show the way by going with.” 

Left is the past tense of the verb to leave. The principal 
parts are leave, left, left. It means “to cause or to allow 
to remain; to let be without interference; to withdraw 
or depart from; to cease from, desist from, stop.” 

Let is a verb, the same in all its principal parts: let, let, 


42 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


let. It means “to permit or allow.” It is sometimes used 
with the meaning of “to rent, to lease, or to hire.” 

Examples: 

1. The guide led us by the shortest route. 

2. A dog led the blind man to his home. 

3. The children were left alone. 

4. Have you left school? 

5. The boys left off shooting at the birds when they saw me 
coming. 

6. Mr. James has a house to let. 

7. Will your mother let you go? 

Fill the blanks with forms of lead, leave or let: 

1. Will she-you hear her practice her song? 

2. I-home at three. 

3. Where have you-me? 

4. The hen-her nest full of eggs. 

5. There is a store to-in this neighborhood. 

6. The teacher-her pupils to appreciate Shakespeare. 

7. The dead man had-a useful life. 

8. He-a fortune to his family when he died. 

9. We should not --our pupils be careless in their work. 

10. They-me alone in the woods. 

One source of confusion of left and let is that one verb 
in Spanish (“dejar”) expresses both. In English, left may 
never mean “to allow or to let.” 

Being and been 

Being is the present participle of the verb to be. 

Been is the past participle of that verb. 

Being is used (a) to form the progressive tenses of to be; 
(b) to introduce participial phrases. 

Been is used (a) to form the passive voice of the perfect 
tenses of all verbs, and ( b ) the perfect tenses of the verb 
to be. 


VERBAL ERRORS 


43 


Examples: 

Being, (a) James is being a good boy today. 

(6) The boy, being sorry for what he had done, asked 
forgiveness. 

Been, (a) He has been told several times. He will have 
been told before he comes. He had been told 
. often before he came. 

( b ) He has been sick. He had been sick. 

Correct the following sentences if they are incorrect: 

1. He had being here. 

2. They had been gone an hour. 

3. I have being late twice. 

4. The house, being painted green, looked very pretty be¬ 
hind the bushes. 

5. Maria has being ready for some time. 

Use been in five sentences. 

Use being in five sentences. 


2. Verbs Confused Because of Similarity in Meaning 
Say and tell 

Some verbs are confused in use due to similarity 
of meaning. The verbs say and tell are very often so 
confused. 

The verb tell is used when its direct object (which is 
usually a noun clause) is accompanied by an indirect object 
either expressed or understood. 

Examples: 

1. He told me that he would go. 

Analysis: that he would go is a noun clause, direct object of 
the verb told; me is the indirect object of the same verb. 


44 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


2. She went without telling her mother that she was going. 

Analysis: that she was going is a noun clause, direct object of 
the gerund telling; mother is the indirect object of the gerund. 

The verb say is used when the direct object is not ac¬ 
companied by an indirect object, expressed or understood. 

Examples: 

1. He said that he would go. 

Analysis: that he would go is a noun clause, object of the 
verb said; there is no indirect object. 

2. She went without saying anything. 

Analysis: anything is the direct object of the gerund saying; 
there is no indirect object. 

3. “I am not going,” said John. 

Analysis: I am not going is a noun clause direct object of the 
verb said; there is no indirect object. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with some 
form of say or tell: 

1. I will-you the truth. 

2. Have you-him the news yet? 

3. I won’t-anything about it. 

4. -me all you heard. 

5. What did he-? 

6. He-that he could not come tonight. 

7. Have you-the news? 

8. No one has-me. 

9. She came in without-a word. 

10. She went out without-anyone goodbye. 

Analyze, according to model given above, these sen¬ 
tences : 

1. Did she tell you that she was tired? 

2. She did not say anything about it. 


VERBAL ERRORS 


45 


Write and analyze: 

1. Five sentences using some form of tell . 

2. Five sentences using some form of say. 

Sometimes the direct object of tell is understood; then 
the indirect object stands alone. 

Examples: 

Have you told him? (the news, what I told you, what you 
told me, etc., understood.) 

Accept and agree 

Correct use of accept Webster gives this definition: 
“to receive a thing offered with a consenting mind; to 
receive with favor; approve; to assent to.” 

Accept is always a transitive verb. Its direct object must 
always be expressed. 

Examples: 

1. The trustees offered Miss Jim&iez a school and she ac¬ 
cepted their offer. 

2. Johnson accepted the publishers’ proposition promptly. 

Correct use of agree. Webster gives this definition: 
“to yield assent or favor; consent; accede; to come to 
terms or a common resolve; to exchange promises.” 

Agree is always intransitive , which means that it never 
takes a direct object. 

Examples: 

1. He agreed to go. 

2. I will agree on certain conditions. 

3. They will agree at once. 

Correct the sentences that are not right; some are 
already correct: 


46 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


1. Will you accept to come? 

2. I cannot agree this plan. 

3. Does he agree to the proposition? 

4. Yes, he accepts the proposition. 

5. Did John accept the gift? 

6. The champion was challenged but he did not accept. 

7. Do you accept? 

8. I cannot agree. 

9. I agree with you. 

10. James accepted and now he has to go. 

Use the correct form of accept or agree: 

1. I could not-the position, but I-to send some¬ 

one else. 

2. Your plan seems good, but I cannot-it. 

3. Yes, I-. 

4. I-to the plan. 

5. Mary did not - the school because she could not 

-to leave home. 

6. Has he-the appointment? 

7. She-to go. 

8. We-the decision. 

9. They-to meet here. 

10. We all-. 


Deny and refuse 

To deny means “to declare to be untrue; to refuse to 
acknowledge, to disown; to answer an accusation in the 
negative.” 

To refuse means “to decline to do, to decline to permit, 
or to decline to yield; to reject.” 

Study the following sentences: 

1. Our petition was refused. 

2. The prisoner denied his guilt. 

3. We denied participation in the strike. 

4. He refused to take part in the exercises. 


VERBAL ERRORS 


47 


Fill the blanks with a form of deny or refuse: 

1. John-to go. 

2. Mary-to answer. 

3. John-that he had thought of going. 

4. The judge-all knowledge of the case. 

5. She-her consent. 

6. She-to give her consent. 

7. The man-to tell all he knew about the crime. 

8. All information was-us. 

Dare and risk 

To dare means “to have courage to do something; to 
be bold enough to do something.” 

To risk means “to expose one’s self or property to a 
chance of injury or danger.” 

These sentences illustrate the correct use: 

1. He risked his life to save his friend. 

2. I would not dare to ride on an elephant. 

3. Mr. Brown risked his whole fortune on a speculation. 

4. Would you dare to go up in an airplane? 

Fill the blanks with forms of dare or risk: 

1. No one-to answer the questions. 

2. Nathan Hale-his life for his country. 

3. Did he-to say such a thing? 

4. Would you-to-your life in that adventure? 

5. Byrd-the loss of his plane when he came down in the 

ocean. 

Win, earn and gain 

To win means “to succeed against competitors; to 
obtain or achieve by persistence or struggle.” 

Examples: 

1. Washington won a victory at Trenton. 

2. Who will win the English prize? 


48 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


To earn means “to receive as a just recompense for 
service or labor.” 

Examples: 

1. A carpenter earns six dollars a day. 

2. He has done nothing to earn his bad reputation. 

To gain means “to secure as profit; to get; to make 
progress.” 

Fill the following blanks with a form of win, earn, or 
gain: 

1. The general-a great advantage. 

2. He-$500 at the races. 

3. He could not-so much in three months. 

4. Who-the prize? 

5. George-the prize but Henry really-it. 

6. Hurrah, ’tis done! The field is-. 

7. Foch did not-much ground during the first part of 

the war. 

8. Did he-or lose on the transaction? 

Remind and remember 

Remind means “to put (one) in mind of something; 
cause to remember.” 

Remember means “to have (an idea) come into the mind 
again; to think of again, to recollect.” 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. I remember the day very well. 

2. I can remember faces but not names. 

3. Can you remember dates? 

4. The expression remember me to your family is an idiom 
that corresponds to the Spanish “Recuerdos a la familia.” 

5. I tied a string on my finger to remind me to buy a paper 
of pins today. 

6. Of what does the date 1776 remind you? 




VERBAL ERRORS 


49 


7. We do not like to be reminded of our faults. 

8. Although my mother often reminds me, I can never re¬ 
member to water the plants. 

Fill the blanks with forms of remind or remember: 

1. -me to go to the Post-office. 

2. Do you-the name of the new bishop? 

3. “-now thy Creator in the days of thy youth.” 

4. That-me; I must buy a loaf of bread. 

5. Does Mr. Gay-you of anyone? 

6. Yes, he-me very much of Mr. Bass. 

7. Gareth-the promise he had made his mother. 

8. Will you-me of my mother's errand if I forget? 

9. Who-the last stanza of “The Chambered Nautilus”? 

10. That flower always-me of Christmas. 

Steal and rob 

To steal means “to take away from another’s possession 
without right, secretly.” 

To rob means “to carry away property of another with¬ 
out right, by violence .” 

Examples of correct use: 

1. The thief came through the dining-room window and stole 
the silver. 

2. Masked men stopped the train and robbed the passengers. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences: 

1. An old man was set upon in the road by bandits who 
-him of all he had. 

2. In all large railroad stations notices are posted warning 

travelers to beware of pickpockets who may-their purses. 

3. “Who-my purse,-trash.” 

4. The bandits killed the express messenger after-the 

mail bags of all registered mail. 


50 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Enjoy and please 

To enjoy anything means “to experience joy or pleasure 
in it.” 

To 'please means “to give pleasure to, to be agreeable 
to.” 

Study the use of these verbs in the sentences that 
follow: 

1. I enjoyed the music; (not, the music enjoyed me). 

2. The music pleased me very much. 

3. Did you enjoy the party last night? 

4. We were pleased by the news. 

5. The news pleased us. 

Fill the blanks with forms of enjoy or please: 

1. The governor was-by the way the people received 

him. 

2. We all-his speech. It-everyone. 

3. Do you-this climate? 

4. What-me most is the delightful breeze that always 

blows. 

5. Did you -the concert? Very much; the harp solo 

-me more than anything else. 

3. Verbs Confused with Nouns and Adjectives of 
Similar Form and Related Meaning 

Advice and advise 

Advice is always a noun; advise is a verb. 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. Try to give good advice. 

2. I advise you to study for examinations. 

3. It is easier to give advice than to follow it. 

4. He advised me to hurry. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with advice 
or advise: 



VERBAL ERRORS 


51 


1. Why didn’t you take my-? 

2. He-me to come but I decided to stay. 

3. To-is easy; to take-is sometimes hard. 

4. What would you-in this case? 

5. She was-by her friends to accept the appointment. 

Safe, save, savings and safety 

Safe is an adjective; save is a verb. 

Savings means “amount not expended but put away.” 
Safety is the noun that means “condition of being safe.” 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with safe, 
save, savings, or safety: 

1. Horace has all his-invested in tobacco. 

2. Is this a-road? 

3. We can travel by night in Porto Rico in absolute-. 

4. How much of your salary can you-? 

5. Lindbergh crossed the ocean in-. 

6. It is not-to put too much confidence in others. 

7. John’s-amounted to $5,000 when he was thirty years 

old. 

8. Everyone should-for a-old age. 

Proof and prove 

Noun, proof; verb, to prove. 

Plural, proofs. 

Principal parts, prove, proved, proved. 

Practice sentences: 

1. The proof of the pudding is in the eating. 

2. I proved my point. 

3. How did you prove that problem? 

4. What proof have you that you are right? 

5. The proofs were authentic. 

6. I can prove my theory. 

Remember, verb contains v; so does the verb prove . 


52 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Fill these blanks with correct forms of proof or prove: 

1. Did your solution-to be right? 

2. Give me your-. 

3. The best way to-the value of a thing is to try it. 

4. The-was accepted. 

5. James-to be a good student. 

6. The prisoner protested that he could-his innocence, 

but his-were not accepted. 

Strive and strife 

Strive is a verb; strife is a noun. 

These sentences are correct: 

1. Strive to do good. 

2. He fell in the midst of the strife. 

3. Mabel is tired of the strife of life. 

4. We must always strive to do our best. 

Fill the blanks with proper forms of strife and strive: 

1. It is discouraging to-so hard and receive no reward. 

2. The-at the bridge between the two forces continued 

all day. 

3. Why-? 

4. The weakest had fallen before the real-began. 

5. The brave captain was always found where the-was 

thickest. 

Life, live and living 

Live is a verb; life is a noun; living may be the present 
participle of live , and is used either as a noun (gerund) or 
as an adjective. 

Study the use of those words in these sentences: 

1. Where do you live? 

2. Life is short. 

3. Do you want to live to be old? 

4. Living expenses are high in Havana. 

5. Does Mary earn her own living? 


VERBAL ERRORS 


53 


Fill the blanks with the correct forms of life, live, or 
living: 

1. She-in Texas where-is cheap. 

2. Where was Harold-when you saw him last? 

3. He has worked for his-ever since he was a child. 

4. -in the city is hurried. 

5. Have you-in San Juan long? 

6. I should like to-in Italy for a year. 

7. -in Mexico, I became familiar with the customs. 

8. “It is not all of-to-, nor all of death, to die.” 

Belief and believe 

Belief is a noun; believe is a verb. 

The plural of belief is beliefs. 

The principal parts of the verb to believe are believe, 
believed, believed. 

Practice sentences: 

1. I believe in the future of Porto Rico. 

2. The governor believes we will have statehood before many 
years. 

3. It is my belief that reading books is the best way to acquire 
a vocabulary in any language. 

4. His statement was not believed. 

5. After hearing the witnesses, I could not believe in his in¬ 
nocence. 

6. My belief changed to doubt. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the proper 
forms of believe and belief: 

1. I-what you say. 

2. What is your religious-? 

3. My-is that you are honest. 

4. Can you-what he says? 

5. Don’t-everything you hear. 


54 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


6. This report has shaken my-in his honesty. 

7. Do you-in evolution? 

4. Verbs That Change from d in the Present 
to t in the Past 


Past Participle 


Past 

spent 

lent 

rent 

bent 

sent 

built 


Present 

spend 

lend 

rend 

bend 

send 

build 


spent 

lent 

rent 

bent 

sent 

built 


Perhaps it is because we know that the present tense 
of a verb usually ends in d that so many people are con¬ 
fused and use the present for the past, and vice-versa. 

1. I sent the letter yesterday; tomorrow I shall send another. 

2. James is very generous: he would lend his last cent. 

3. Mrs. Briggs lent me her hat. 

4. The tree bends in the strong winds. 

5. Yesterday it bent almost to the ground. 

6. Do not spend your money foolishly. 

7. After it is spent you will be sorry. 

8. The School of Tropical Medicine was built in 1925. 

9. The boy had been sent to school, but went to play ball. 

10. I send my children to the Practice School; Mr. Herndndez 
sends his to the Hawthorne. 

11. The lion rends his victim limb from limb. 

Fill the blanks in these sentences with the correct forms 
of spend, lend, rend, bend, send, or build: 

1. -your house very carefully. 

2. The boy-his pencil to me yesterday. 

3. I always-my vacation in the country. 

4. The capitol is-of white Georgia marble. 

5. The bamboo is easy to-but it is hard to break. 


VERBAL ERRORS 


55 


6. This house was-before that one. 

7. I-my servant to market every day. 

8. I-her yesterday as usual and she-96 cents. 

9. Will you-me your pencil? 

10. The house was-right on the road. 

11. The old man’s body is-with age. 

12. Can your little sister-a castle with her blocks? 


6. Effect of Auxiliary on Form of Main Verb 

Let the auxiliary verb do the work. In the Practice 
School at Rio Piedras, the critic teacher has an easy 
time — theoretically, at least. She has nothing to do 
but supervise the practice teachers, who do the teaching. 
We may compare the critic teacher to the verb, and the 
practice teacher to the auxiliary that helps the verb, be¬ 
cause the auxiliary always expresses the tense of the verb 
and the main verb, like the critic teacher, sits still and 
does nothing. So, remember, in the simple tenses, present, 
past and future, when there is an auxiliary, the main verb 
keeps always the form of the infinitive, remaining un¬ 
changed no matter what the tense may be. For example, 
the infinitive of the verb go is to go; with auxiliaries we 
would say: will go; did go; does go; do go; may go; 
might go; should go; would go; can go. 

The following sentences are therefore correct: 

1. He does not like to be late. 

2. I will come if I can. 

3. He could read the notice at a great distance. 

4. They could see through the window. 

5. He can run a mile. 

6. I did not think of it. 

7. Will they be here tomorrow? 

8. Did you bring your books? 

9. No, I did not think it would be necessary. 


56 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Choose the correct form from each parenthesis: 

1. Did he (come, came ) on time yesterday? 

2. Does Mary (think, thinks) the book good? 

3. The athlete (run, runs) for practice every day; he can 
(run, runs) a quarter of a mile in 56 seconds. Did he (run, ran) 
in the tournament last week? 

4. Doesn’t Janet (want, wants) to go? No, she did want, 
wanted) to go until today when she decided to stay. 

5. We must always (try, tried) to do our best. 

6. Did the aviators (reach, reached) Buenos Aires on time? 

7. The same pilot does not (expect, expects) to make the re¬ 
turn voyage. He (expects, expect) to remain in South America. 

8. Did Harold (write, wrote) his work well? 

9. Yes, he always (writes, write) carefully. 

6. Will and would 

Some mistakes in English are made because will is often 
used when would is correct. 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. He said that he would go. 

2. She says that she will go. 

3. Mrs. Baker promised that she would come. 

4. She promises that she will come. 

Notice that in this construction (a noun clause used as 
direct object) when the principal verb of the sentence is 
in the present tense, it is followed by will in the noun 
clause; when the principal verb is in the past tense, it 
is followed by would. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with will and 
would: 

1. He declared that he-not forget. 

2. She often promises that which she-never do. 

3. Mrs. Williams says that she-try to come. 


VERBAL ERRORS 


57 


4. Did Dr. Brown leave word that he-come again today? 

5. Do you think that you - hear from James before 

Christmas? 

7. Uses of the Past Participle 

The past participle is used to form the compound tenses: 
present perfect, past perfect, future perfect. 

Examples: 

(а) Present perfect of the verb to live: 

Singular: I have lived. 

You have lived. 

He, she, it has lived. 

Plural: We, you, they have lived. 

(б) Past perfect of the verb to live: 

Singular: I had lived. 

You had lived. 

He, she, it had lived. 

Plural: We, you, they had lived. 

(c) Future perfect of to live: 

Singular: I shall have lived. 

You will have lived. 

He, she, it will have lived. 

Plural: We shall have lived. 

You will have lived. 

They will have lived. 

The past participle is used to form the passive voice 
in any tense of any verb. 

Examples: 

1. I have been told the truth. 

2. He has been seen here frequently. 

3. May is known by her stories. 

4. He was married three weeks ago. 


58 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


The past participle is used to form the passive voice of 
an infinitive, present or perfect. 

Examples: 

1. It is dangerous to be found here at night. 

2. He was believed to have been hurt internally. 

The past participle may be used to introduce a parti¬ 
cipial phrase. 

Examples: 

1. The vase, broken by the fall, remained in fragments on 
the floor. 

2. The general, disappointed by the non-arrival of his sup¬ 
port, retired to a fortified position. 

3. The moon rose, encircled by a misty halo. 

The past participle may be used as an adjective. 
Examples: 

1. He shook his fist at the surprised agent. 

2. The murdered man was buried the next day. 

3. Mary was as wet as a drowned rat when she arrived. 


8. The Third Person Singular 

It seems strange, when there are in English so few 
verbal endings to remember, compared with the number 
in Spanish, that it should be so hard to keep in mind 
that the third 'person singular of the present tense of an 
English verb ends with s. 

Remember to write: 

1. The hat looks well on the girl. 

2. The tall grass waves in the wind. 

3. The star shines through my window. 

4. The dog enjoys his bone. 


VERBAL ERRORS 59 

Write the correct form of the verb in the following 
blanks: 

1. The wind-among the branches. 

2. The coqufes-all night. 

3. The lambs-for their mother. 

4. A big frog-in a pond near my home. 

5. Mary-the piano with expression. 

6. History-many instances of ingratitude. 

Change the following plural subjects and verbs to the 
singular: 

1. The boys like to play tennis. 

2. The leaves fall from the trees. 

3. Why do the cars turn at this corner? 

4. The books lie on the table. 

5. The baskets are full of mangoes. 

Complete the following sentences: 

1. -eat hay and grain. 

2. -climbs the mountain. 

3. -comes out to watch us as we pass. 

4. -run quickly away. 

5. -fall slowly to the ground. 

6. -cluck to their chickens. 

7. -crows in the night. 

8. -blows his horn. 

9. -takes off his hat. 

10. -fills the bottles with milk. 


9. The Infinitive 

The infinitive has three forms; namely, the simple 
infinitive, as in the sentence I like to run; the passive 
infinitive, as in He expected to be killed; and the perfect 
infinitive, as in He ought to have come sooner. 


60 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


We use the simple infinitive much oftener than any 
other form. It always takes the form we know as the 
present tense; as, to kill, to run, to sell, to go. It is very 
incorrect to use “to killed,” or “to expected,” etc. The 
perfect and passive infinitives are written with the past 
participle and infinitive of the auxiliary to have for the 
perfect, and to he for the passive. (Remember the uses 
of the past participle.) 

Write the correct form of the infinitive in the following 
sentences: 

1. He said that he wanted (die). 

2. The enemy was reported (come) nearer during the night. 

3. In the north, the leaves begin (turn brown) in September. 

4. The lizard tries (catch) flies and ants for his supper. 

5. She had not expected (met) by anyone. 

6. John determined (raise) chickens for a living. 

7. The robber was determined not (take) alive by the officers. 

8. She came on purpose (have) a good time. 

9. James expected (stop) by the detectives before he reached 
the frontier. 

10. I hoped (hear) from her before now. 

10. Verbal Consistency 

We all know that in a narration of events that took 
place in the past, the verbs used should be in the past 
tense; however, in outlines and synopses of stories it is 
correct to put the verbs in the present tense, if one 
wishes. The only thing to remember is that if one be¬ 
gins his outline or synopsis with the verbs in the present 
tense, he must keep to the present tense throughout; 
while, if his verbs are, at the beginning, in the past tense, 
it would be very incorrect and inconsistent to mingle 
verbs in the present tense with those in the past tense, in 
the course of the outline or synopsis. 


PREPOSITIONAL ERRORS 


61 


Examples: 

1. Rip Van Winkle, finding everything strange, decides to 
return to the village. 

2. On the way he meets a number of people who look at 
him strangely. 

Or: 

1. Rip Van Winkle, finding everything strange, decided to 
return to the village. 

2. On the way he met a number of people who looked at him 
curiously. 


SECTION B — PREPOSITIONAL ERRORS 

1. Prepositions Incorrectly Used with 
Verbs that Take No Preposition 

We often hear Spanish-speaking people say “I entered 
to the church,” or “I approached to the teacher.” 

The correct forms would be I entered the church; I ap¬ 
proached the teacher. 

These mistakes are made because the verbs approach 
and enter , in Spanish, should be followed by a preposition. 

Other verbs of this type are: marry, oppose, ask, reach, 
and abuse. 

The following examples are correct: 

1. I reached San Juan at ten o’clock. 

2. Jim vigorously opposed the plan. 

3. Mabel asked her mother to let her go too. 

4. Mr. Brown married Miss Annette Jason yesterday. (We 
can also say, “Mr. Brown was married to Miss Jason”; in this 
case, what difference do you notice in the verb?) 

5. Any boy that abuses a smaller one is a coward. 

Correct the sentences that are not idiomatic: 

1. Mr. Miller said that he would oppose to the governor in 
this matter. 


62 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


2. Henry never abuses his younger friends. 

3. Did Sally enter the house at once? 

4. Bob always asks to his father permission. 

5. Roosevelt’s oldest daughter married with a congressman. 

6. We were a little afraid when we approached to the pres¬ 
ence of the king and queen. 

7. Henry asked to William whether he intended to go to 
the dance. 

8. Did you reach home before the rain? 

9. Do not enter to the schoolroom yeii. 

10. I am forced to oppose him in this matter. 

11. Sam is always abusing with the little boys. 

12. We reached to the city on time. 

2. Unidiomatic Expressions Due to the Use of the 
Wrong Preposition 

We should say: 

1. Kind to and not kind with. 

Example: The teacher is kind to her pupils. 

2. To liberate from prison, instead of to liberate of prison. 
Example: The man completed his three-year sentence and 

was liberated from prison. 

3. In love with, and not in love of. 

Example: Lancelot was in love with Guinevere. 

4. To pass over a bridge, and not by or through a bridge. 
Example: The train passed safely over the bridge. 

5. Taxes imposed on, instead of imposed to. 

Example: Heavy taxes were imposed on the people. 

6. Classified as G, and not in G. 

Example: Last year I was classified as G. 

7. Base opinion on and not in. 

Example: She based her opinion on what she read. 

8. Think of and not in. 

Example: Do not think of this as trouble for me. 


PREPOSITIONAL ERRORS 


63 


9. Dream of or about, but not in or with. 

Example: Of what did you dream last night? 

10. Astonished at, and not of. 

Example: We were astonished at the news. 

11. In exchange for, and not in exchange of. 

Example: I will give you this pen in exchange for that one. 

12. Declare war on, instead of to. 

Example: England declared war on Germany. 

13. Related to, instead of related with. 

Example: This question is not related to that. 

14. Deal in an article, instead of deal on an article. 

Example: Mr. Crandall deals in rice. 

15. Good for something, not to. 

Example: The ordinance was good for the town. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences: 

1. Lindbergh passed-the ocean. 

2. Mr. Helder deals-grains of all kinds. 

3. Mrs. Diaz was classified-E. 

4. It is not good-you to study too late. 

5. He said that he based his opinion-the fact that the 

supervisor never visited him. 

6. The new teacher is in love-my sister. 

7. After a long time, Bob was liberated-the bandits. 

8. The step-mother is often unkind-- her husband’s 

children. 

9. Last night I dreamed - Mary, and she dreamed 

-me. 

10. I was greatly surprised-the decision. 

11. This idea is closely related-my argument. 

12. Turkey declared war-Greece. 

13. Clarence gave Allen his hat in exchange - Allen’s 

cap. 

14. Heavy taxes will be imposed-the owners of cars. 

15. It makes me angry to think-those events. 


64 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


3. Cases in Which the Preposition Changes the 
Meaning of the Verb 

The verb look depends for its meaning on the preposi¬ 
tion that follows it. 

To look at means “to examine; to direct the eyes at 
anyone or anything for the purpose of seeing.” 

To look toward means “to direct the eyes in the general 
direction of anyone or anything.” 

To look over means “to examine; to inspect.” 

To look to means “to expect or anticipate something 
from someone.” 

To look, without a preposition, means “to seem; to 
express an emotion or feeling by a look.” 

Examples: 

1. I looked at fireless cookers today at “Los Muchachos.” 

2. I looked at John intently, but he did not see me. 

3. The light hurts my eyes when I look toward a window. 

4. I could look over the city from the airplane. 

5. I look to you for help and cooperation. 

6. He looks well. 

7. Mary looked her surprise. 

Fill the blanks with the correct prepositions: 

1. Have you looked-the papers? 

2. Our pupils look-us for inspiration. 

3. Look-the mantones when you go to Gonzdlez Padin. 

4. I looked-the direction from which I heard the voice. 

5. One can look- a large part of Porto Rico from the 

summit of El Yunque. 

6. I looked-the beads for a long time before I chose 

this string. 

Write ten sentences that illustrate the uses of the verb 
look without a preposition. 


PRONOMINAL ERRORS 


65 


SECTION C—PRONOMINAL ERRORS 
1. The Personal Pronoun 

In Spanish, it is quite proper to refer to people as this 
and that. “Vino a ver a esta,” “£ste no quiere ir,” etc. 
But in English this cannot be done. We must use per¬ 
sonal pronouns when we refer to people. The demonstra¬ 
tive pronouns refer only to things. “ I came to see these ,” 
(indicating books); and “ This is the one I want,” (in¬ 
dicating an article in a store) are correct forms. 

Fill each blank with a suitable pronoun: 

1. I brought the roses to-. 

2. I came to see-but-is not here. 

3. Give the letter to-. 

4. I have two brothers, John and Edward; the-is at 

home but the latter is in Europe. 

5. Mary has two sisters; Kate and Rachel; Rachel is here 

but the-is in New York. 

2. The Possessive Pronoun 

The special difficulty with the possessive pronoun arises 
from the fact that in Spanish any modifier must agree 
with the noun modified. So we find such mistakes as 
these that follow: Mary went to meet his father (Mary’s 
father). Susana has lost his book (Susana’s book). 

Book and father are masculine gender, in Spanish, and 
unconsciously, in English, masculine gender is associated 
with the words, and the pronouns modifying them are 
given masculine gender also. Remember that in English 
the possessive pronoun takes the gender of the one who 
;possesses and not of the thing possessed. 

Fill these blanks: 

1. Henry has lost-pen. 

2. She obeys-father. 


66 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


3. John is very respectful to-mother. 

4. Isabel has forgotten-pencil. 

5. William is interested in-work. 

6. He never neglects-sister. 

7. Juana goes riding every day on-horse. 

8. The professor is awaiting for-wife. 

9. The girl is combing-hair. 

3. The Superfluous Use of it 

The mistake found in the following sentence is a com¬ 
mon one: “She possessed an attraction which I do not 
know how to define it.” 

Why is this wrong? Analysis of the relative clause will 
show that the infinitive has two objects both meaning the 
same thing — which and it; this is unnecessary of course, 
and results in a sentence that not only sounds awkward, 
but which is grammatically incorrect. The correct form 
is She possessed an attraction which I do not know how to 
define. 

Another typical and awkward construction involving 
the pronoun it is the following: “It is found in it short 
stories.” In this type of sentence the subject should 
always come first, and the correct form would be Short 
stories are found in it. 

A safe rule to follow is to strive to express our thoughts 
in the simplest way, with the simplest words. 


SECTION D — UNIDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 

1. The Use of a Noun Clause After Such Verbs as Allow, 
Like, and Want Instead of an Infinitive Phrase 

An infinitive phrase should be used after such verbs as 
let, allow, like, and want instead of a noun clause. 

“He wanted that Hilary should go” is awkward and 


UNIDIOMATIC CONSTRUCTIONS 67 

unidiomatic. He wanted Hilary to go is the idiomatic 
construction. 

Write the following sentences idiomatically: 

1. I can’t allow that you should come late every day. 

2. I like that the school-yard should be attractive with 
flowers. 

3. Mrs. Blanton didn’t want that her son John should study 
agriculture. 

4. I cannot permit that the cows eat the plants. 

5. Jane wants that we should dismiss her at two o’clock. 

2. The Use of a Gerund Phrase When an Infinitive 
Phrase Would Be Correct 

Examples of this type of error: “He was anxious of 
having a good report.” “ Martha was able of doing bet¬ 
ter work.” The correct forms would be He was anxious 
to have a good report; Martha was able to do better work. 

Fill the blanks with the verb enclosed in parentheses, 
using the proper construction: 

1. We should desire (do) our best at all times. 

2. Helen hopes to be able ( secure) a good position. 

3. Do not be satisfied (do) less than your best. 

4. James is impatient (begin) his school work. 

5. Maud is not willing (join) the club. 

3. The Use of the Infinitive After the Verbs Make (When Make 
Means Render),Let, Think, Believe, Consider andEquivalents 

These sentences are idiomatic: 

1. Lindbergh’s flight made him popular. 

2. I believe Mr. Hudson a good man. 

Correct the expressions that are unidiomatic: 

1. Do you consider this to be the best one? 

2. I’ve always believed him honest. 


68 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


3. Jim Hawkin at first thought Silver a good man. 

4. Mr. Farr’s charitable deeds made him to be loved by all 
the town. 

5. I don’t consider this house to be safe. 

4. Condition Contrary to Fact in Past Time 

People whose native idiom is Spanish very often re¬ 
sort to an awkward construction in English to express 
condition contrary to fact in past time. This is due, 
of course, to the influence of Spanish, in which the 
subjunctive is used in similar constructions. The follow¬ 
ing sentences are illustrative of that awkward and unidio- 
matic construction so often found: 

1. If she would have decided sooner, she might have gone. 

2. If the story would have ended at a different place, it 
would have been more artistic. 

The correct forms would be: 

If she had decided sooner, etc.; If the story had ended, etc. 

In these sentences, had ended and had decided are 
subjunctive forms, but it just happens that this tense, 
(the past perfect) is the same in both indicative and 
subjunctive. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. If father would not have forbidden it, I would have gone 
up in the airplane. 

2. I should have come, if Mary would not have gone away. 

3. If he would have been careful, he would not have been 

hurt. 

4. Marvin would have believed what you said if Richard 
would not have told him it was not true. 

5. The flowers would not have faded if you would not have 
forgotten to water them. 


DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES 


69 


SECTION E—THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES 

In Spanish the adjective agrees in number with the 
noun it modifies; descriptive, limiting, demonstrative ad¬ 
jectives all have to agree with their respective nouns. It 
should be easy to remember that in English, only the 
demonstrative adjectives must agree with their nouns, in 
number. The demonstrative adjectives are this and that; 
before plural nouns these adjectives change to these and 
those. 

Examples: 

1. This plan, these plans. 

2. This idea, these ideas. 

3. That invention, those inventions. 

4. That book, those books. 

Be sure to pronounce this and these correctly; the i in 
this is short, and the word should rhyme with hiss; the 
first e of these is long, and the word rhymes with bees. If 
you accustom yourself to an accurate pronunciation of 
these two words, you will not be so likely to confuse 
their use. 

Put the proper form of this or that in the blanks: 

— books here on my desk. 

— rose in the garden. 

— flowers in your vase. 

— plan of the king. 

— plans for today's lesson. 

— house on the hill. 

— papers over there on the floor. 

— shoes you have on. 

— shoes I have on. 

— pencil I use. 

— ideas of John. 


70 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


— wishes of mine. 

— desk over there. 

— men going by the church. 

— Knights of the Round Table. 

— difficult lesson last week. 

— long assignments today. 

And above all, remember to use-forms correctly 

when you are writing or speaking-language. 

SECTION F —THE DIVISION OF WORDS AT 
THE END OF A LINE 

One of the most common sources of error in writing 
English is that of dividing words wrongly at the end of 
a line. 

To avoid this error, two things are necessary: 

1. An understanding of the principal rules of syllabi¬ 
cation in English. 

2. To remember that words are only divided between 
syllables, and that, therefore, a word of one syllable cannot 
be divided at all. 

Syllabication 

The following general rules should always be observed: 

1. Words ending in ing may be divided before the suf¬ 
fix, unless the consonant has been doubled. Examples: 
walk-ing; run-ning. 

2. The suffix ed may be carried over at the end of a 
fine if it is accented. Examples: intend-ed; surround-ed; 
but hoped and wished cannot be divided, because they are 
pronounced as one syllable. 

3. When two consonants occur in the middle of a word, 
if one is pronounced with one syllable and one with an¬ 
other, the word may be divided between them. Examples: 
lei-ter; lit-tle; writ-ten; ham-mer. 


POSITION OF DIRECT OBJECT 


71 


4. When two consonants occurring together in a word 
belong both to the same syllable, they must both go with 
the syllable in which they are pronounced. Examples: 
fath-er; moth-er; broth-er. 

Correct the following, if incorrect: 

be-cau-se; some; mo-re; be-hav-ing; bec-oming. 

Make a list of ten present participles and divide them 
into their syllables. 

Make a list of twenty words that must never be divided. 


SECTION G—WHEN ONE IS CHOSEN 
FROM A GROUP 


The error contained in the following sentence belongs 
to a type often met: “One of my mother dress was blue.” 
The correct form would be: One of my mother’s dresses 
was blue. 

The word that indicates the group from which one is 
taken must be plural. 


Incorrect 

One of my best friend 
One of the new book 
One of the hardest problem 


Correct 

One of my best friends 
One of the new books 
One of the hardest 'problems 


Write twenty sentences that illustrate the correct way 
of expressing one taken from a group. 


SECTION H—THE POSITION OF THE 
DIRECT OBJECT 

The direct object should follow its verb as closely as 
possible. 

Incorrect: 

1. He wanted very much the money. 

2. She closed carefully the book. 


72 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


3. The nations signed on May 5th the treaty. 

4. I liked very much the story. 

Correct: 

1. He wanted the money very much. 

2. She closed the book carefully. 

3. The nations signed the treaty on May 5th. 

4. I liked the story very much. 

Write twenty sentences that will show the correct do- 
sition of the direct object. 

SECTION I — IM WORDS THAT ARE IN 
WORDS IN SPANISH 

In English, the prefix in is used before words beginning 
with any letter except m or p; before m or p, in changes 
to im. 

In Spanish, in is used before words beginning with m 
and only changes to im before words beginning with 
b or p. 

This difference between the two languages explains the 
common error of misspelling such words as immediately , 
immortal (wrongly written immediately,” “inmortal”). 

The following list should be examined and used for drill: 


English 

immaculate 


Spanish 

inmaculado 


immeasurable 

immediate 

immediately 


inmediatamente 


inmediato 


inmensurable 


immemorial 

immense 


inmemorial 

inmenso 


immensity 

imminent 

immobile 

immoderate 


inmensidad 

inminente 

inmovil 


inmoderado 




WORDS CONFUSED 


73 


English 

immodest 

immolate 

immortal 

immortality 

immortalize 

immobility 

immune 

immutable 


Spanish 

inmodesto 

inmolar 

inmortal 

inmortalidad 

inmortalizar 

inmovilidad 

inmune 

inimitable 


SECTION J—WORDS CONFUSED DUE TO 
SIMILARITY OF SOUND AND SPELLING 

Know and now 

Of course, everyone knows that know is a verb and now 
an adverb of time. It is because they are not pronounced 
correctly that they may be similar in sound, and are hence 
confused in use. Know is pronounced to rhyme with snow 
or low; the o is long (o) and the w is silent. Now is pro¬ 
nounced to rhyme with cow and how. 

Say these words to yourself to see if you have been 
accustomed to pronounce them correctly. 

Fun and fond 

Fun, a noun, means “ sport, playful action or speech.” 

Fond, an adjective, means “affectionate, tender”; when 
followed by of, fond means “prizing highly.” 

Examples: 

1. It was great fun to skate on the pond. 

2. Uncle Harris was always full of fun. 

3. Are you fond of your cousins? 

4. Mary is fond of fun of all kinds. 

5. A mother is fond of her children. 




74 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Fill blanks with fun or fond: 

1. There will be no-today because it is raining. 

2. Some people are very-of aguacates. 

3. It is impossible to have any-when James is in the 

party because he is so solemn. 

4. Why are you so-of Maria? 

5. Let’s watch the-. 

Lose and loose 

Lose is a verb; its principal parts are lose, lost, lost. 
It is only the form lose which is sometimes confused with 
the adjective loose. To lose means “to suffer the loss of 
something; to fail to keep something.” 

Loose is an adjective; it means “not fastened so as to 
be fixed, rigid, firm, or tight.” 

Loose may be used as a verb, meaning “to render, or 
cause to be less rigid, firm, or tight.” 

Examples of correct use: 

1. Did you lose your watch? 

2. How did you lose your ring? 

3. It was too loose on my finger. 

4. The horse got loose, and was lost. 

5. Was the rope too loose? 

Fill the blanks with lose or loose, as you think suitable: 

1. A-rope may cause a farmer to-his horse. 

2. When did you-your pen? 

3. Did you ever-your way in the dark? 

4. The leaves of this book seem to be-. 

5. Yes, my bracelet was-and has fallen off. 

Choice and choose 

Choice is usually a noun; it means “the act of choosing; 
preference of one thing to another.” It is sometimes an 


WORDS CONFUSED 75 

adjective, used to mean “that which is preferable; the 
pick” 

Choose is a verb; its principal parts are choose , chose, 
chosen; it means “to make a choice; to make a selection.” 

Examples of correct use: 

1. This is my choice. 

2. What do you choose? 

3. I think Sara has chosen wisely. 

4. Have you chosen your winter hat? 

5. Ben was a carpenter from necessity, not from choice. 

6. “Choose thou the better part; there honor lies.” 

Fill blanks in these sentences below with choice or some 
form of choose: 

1. What is your-? I prefer the green hat. 

2. Did Jim-his profession? 

3. Mary was always my-of the sisters. 

4. -your friends carefully. 

5. Of all Dickens’ books, my-is Our Mutual Friend. 

6. Coolidge said: “I do not-to run.” 

Interesting and interested 

Both are adjectives; interesting means “exciting, or 
adapted to excite, interest”; interested means “having 
the attention or feeling engaged or excited.” So it is 
obvious that “I was very interesting” sounds quite con¬ 
ceited and “I was much interested” was probably meant. 
It is equally obvious that a book, or any other inanimate 
object, cannot be interested. These sentences are right: 

1. I was much interested in Franco’s flight across the ocean. 

2. My work this year has been quite interesting. 

3. She is an interesting girl (meaning, to others). 

4. She is interested in her work (meaning, her attention is 
engaged or excited, by her work). 


76 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Fill the blanks in the following sentences with interested 
or interesting: 

1. Are you-in your work? 

2. Which did you find more-, Treasure Island , or The 

Alhambrat 

3. The Alhambra was more-to me, as I am greatly- 

in legends of ancient times. 

4. Why is Mr. Hale such an-teacher? Probably because 

he is much-in his work. 

5. Mary was much-in the description of the picnic Helen 

gave her. 

Along and alone 

Along is an adverb. In modern English it has two 
meanings: 

(a) “by the length, or lengthwise.” 

Example: 

1. He drew the pencil along the edge of the ruler. 

(b) “in company; together.” 

Example: 

1. You may go along ( with us etc. understood). 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. Plant a row of Easter lilies along the walk. 

2. Several wrecked cars may be seen along the road. 

3. The teacher glanced along the front row of pupils. 

4. Do you want to come along? 

5. We are going to the pictures. Let’s all go along together. 

Alone is used both as adjective and as adverb. As ad¬ 
jective it means “quite by one’s self; solitary.” As adverb 
it means “solely, simply, exclusively.” 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. She lives alone. 

2. No one can live on bread alone. 

3. Did you come alone? 


WORDS CONFUSED 


77 


Fill the following blanks with along or alone: 

1. “-,-, all, all-,-on a wide, wide sea.” 

2. Are you going-to Ponce? No, Juan is going-. 

3. He was-in the wilderness. 

4. He wants to go-with me. 

5. Mary went-merely to pass away the time. 

6. Bryan was not- in his opposition to the theory of 

evolution. 

7. Many people began to think-those lines. 

8. My friends are going swimming tomorrow and mother 

says I may go-. 

9. Are you going-? Yes, unless you will come-. 

10. She was-in her belief in his innocence. 

11. We walked-the road. 

12. It was cold-the beach. 

Cloth and clothes 

Cloth is a pliable fabric made by weaving; commonly, 
fabric of woven cotton, linen, or woolen fiber. The plural 
of cloth is cloths. A “mantel de mesa” is called a table-cloth. 

Clothes are garments, dress, or covering of any kind for 
the body. 

The coverings of a bed (blankets, sheets, quilts, etc.) 
are called bedclothes. 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. The child’s clothes were neat and clean. 

2. Never judge a person by his clothes. 

3. Men’s clothes are usually made of woolen cloth. 

4. This mill manufactures three cloths — cotton, woolen and 
linen. 

5. Have the clothes been ironed? 

6. Put the table-cloths into a drawer. 

7. The bedclothes should be put out to sun frequently to 
prevent dampness. 


78 THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 

Fill blanks in the sentences that follow: 

1. Gonzdlez Padfn’s is a good place to buy bed-. 

2. The man’s-showed that he had slept in them all 

night. 

3. Linen-makes excellent-for summer. 

4. Always brush your-carefully. 

5. The table-should be changed frequently. 

6. Her-last a long time because she mends them. 

7. Here are six clean-to wipe the dishes. 

8. Boys tear their-because they are always exercising 

violently. 

9. Her-are always in good taste. 

10. Which-do you prefer for Porto Rico, linen or wool? 

Costume and custom 

Costume means “ manner or kind of dress, of a place or 
period.” 

Custom means “a usage, or practice; a course of action 
characteristically repeated under like circumstances.” 

Examples: 

1. We find most interesting customs among the Eskimos. 

2. It was his invariable custom to be at the office at 8 o’clock. 

3. What costume shall you wear to the fancy-dress ball 
tonight? 

4. The costumes of the Roumanian peasants are very pictur¬ 
esque on account of their bright colors. 

Fill the blanks with costume or custom: 

1. Where will you find a-for the Hallowe’en party? 

2. I shall make one; it is not my-to borrow-. 

3. Did you notice the beautiful 17th century-shown in 

the picture “Sir Walter Raleigh”? 

4. It is Harold’s-to write to his parents every week. 

5. It was the-among the natives of Boriquen for the 

host to exchange names with a guest of honor. 


WORDS CONFUSED 


79 


Prize and price 

These words may both be used as either nouns or verbs. 
Let us consider them first as nouns. 

Prize: A dictionary will give you several related uses 
for this word; its most common is “something offered or 
striven for in competition or in contests of chance.” 

Price: “The value or worth of one thing that is ex¬ 
changed or demanded in barter or sale for another.” 

As verbs: To prize means “to value highly; to esteem.” 
To price: “to set a price on; to ask the price of.” 

The following are examples of the correct use of these 
words: 

1. Patria won the English prize. 

2. The price of the shoes is two dollars. 

3. I am not going to buy anything today; I want only to 
price the floor lamps. 

4. Kate prizes nothing so highly as her set of Shakespeare. 

Fill the following blanks with prize or price as nouns 
or verbs: 

1. What is the-of this table? 

2. What-was given the winning team in the debate? 

3. Please stop at the store and-the electric irons. 

4. The-has probably gone up since last year. 

5. Have you chosen the-for your card party? 

6. Why does Martha-that old clock so highly? It has 

belonged to her family for many years. 

7. Martha’s clock would be considered a-by an antique 

dealer. 

8. No-would induce her to sell it. 

Died, dead and death 

Died is the past tense and past participle of the verb 
to die. 

Dead is an adjective. Death is the noun. 


80 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Study these examples of their correct use: 

1. The flowers are withered and dead. 

2. There is a Reaper whose name is Death 
And with his sickle keen 

He reaps the bearded grain at a breath 
And the flowers that grow between. 

3. Aunt Sally died on the last day of the year. 

4. Her death was unexpected. 

5. She has been dead nine months. 

6. Neighbors said that she died of a broken heart. 

7. Napoleon’s hopes were dead at last after Waterloo. 

8. He died on the island of Saint Helena. 

Fill the blanks in the following sentences with died, dead 
and death: 

1. Has Mrs. Miller been-long? 

2. This is the City of the-. 

3. “0-, where is thy sting? 0 grave, where is thy victory?” 

4. General Wolfe said, as he lay dying, “Thank God! I have 

not-in vain.” 

5. His-was followed very closely by that of Montcalm. 

6. Let us rake up the-leaves. 


Stroke and struck 

A stroke is a blow made with a striking instrument. 
Struck is the past participle of the verb to strike, the 
principal parts of which are strike, struck, struck. 

The following sentences are correct: 

1. The wood-cutter struck the tree with his ax. 

2. The stroke was enough to kill any man. 

3. Mr. Baxter has had a stroke of paralysis. 

4. By the stroke of a pen, fortunes have been acquired. 

5. I was struck by the resemblance between Mr. Hall and his 
sister. 



WORDS CONFUSED 81 

Fill the blanks in these sentences with stroke or struck: 

1. The man seemed to have been-on the head. 

2. The tree was felled with a few expert-of the wood¬ 

cutter’s ax. 

3. The craze for Eskimo Pie has just-town. 

4. Mary was-the kitten’s fur. 

5. As I groped my way along, something-me a blow on 

the head. 

6. Mabel was-by a sudden thought. 

7. The champion won the golf tournament by one-. 

8. The cocoanut almost-Jim when it fell from the tree. 

9. I had a-of luck this afternoon. 

Most and must 

Most may be used as an indefinite pronoun or as an 
adjective meaning the greatest number. It may be used 
also to form the superlative degree of an adjective or 
adverb. 

Examples: 

1. Most of the girls have gone. 

2. Most beautiful; most rapidly. 

Must is an auxiliary verb that expresses necessity or 
urgent need of doing something: 

1. I must do my work better. 

2. You must try to come without fail. 

Fill the blanks below with most or must: 

1. This is a-awkward situation. 

2. -voters were in favor of Coolidge for president. 

3. What song did you like-? 

4. -you go so soon? 

5. I-hurry home because the baby is sick. 

6. You-leave your play now and study. 

7. -people dread a visit to the dentist. 


82 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


8. You-be sure to remember to lock the door. 

9. He says that he-soon return to New York. 

10. John has many marbles but Howard has the-. 

Quite and quiet 

Quite is an adverb of degree; it means “to a great 
extent, or considerable degree.” 

Example: 

1. The book is quite interesting. 

Quiet is an adjective, and means “in a state of rest, or 
repose; still, calm.” 

Example: 

1. The woman remained quiet, and did not answer a word. 

Besides being spelled in a very similar way, the word 
quiet is often mispronounced and made to sound very 
much like quite; this accounts for the frequent misuse of 
these words. Remember, quiet is a word of two syllables 
(qui-et) and should be pronounced in that way, while 
quite is a word of one syllable. 

Fill the blanks with quite or quiet: 

1. The night was-dark. 

2. -a large number of people were there. 

3. The night was-and-bright with moonlight. 

4. It is-hard to keep children-. 

5. We walked-a long distance. 

6. -and still lay the old dog. 

7. The story is-true. 

8. He was always a-boy. 

Lovely and loving 

Lovely is an adjective that means “possessing mental 
or physical qualities that inspire admiration and love.” 


WORDS MISUSED 83 

Loving is the present participle of the verb io love and, 
used as an adjective, means “affectionate or devoted.” 

Can you explain to your teacher why it is that you 
should not close a letter “Your lovely pupil”? She has 
probably received letters ending in just that way. What 
does “Your lovely pupil” mean? Do you mean to say 
that? YTiat would “Your loving pupil” mean? 


SECTION K —WORDS MISUSED DUE TO 
DIFFERENCE IN IDIOM 

Lecture and conference 

Differences in idiom often give rise to the use of the 
wrong word. Lecture and conference mean in English 
widely different activities, but since a lecture in Spanish 
is a “ conferencia,” Spanish-speaking people often confuse 
the use of the two words. Lecture means “a reading, a 
discourse; a formal discourse for instruction.” 

Conference means “act of conferring; serious consul¬ 
tation or discussion; a meeting for consultation or dis¬ 
cussion.” 

Examples of correct use: 

1. The teachers’ conference lasted a week. 

2. The doctors held a conference to decide the best treatment 
for my uncle who is very sick. 

3. The lectures of Senor Araquistain have been greatly en¬ 
joyed. 

4. Dr. de Onls gave a lecture on Spanish customs. 

Fill the blanks with lecture or conference: 

1. My father has gone to the-of fruit growers. 

2. Mr. Barrett will give a-there on citrus fruits. 

3. Were you present at Mr. Llorens Torres’-last night? 


84 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


4. The farmers are holding a-to discuss means of shipping 

products more conveniently. 

5. The illustrated-was greatly enjoyed by all present. 

Feast and festival 

Feast means “a religious festival as opposed to a fast; 
act or occasion of making an elaborate meal; a banquet.” 
It may never be used to mean a party, or program, or 
picnic, or dance. 

Festival is usually used as an adjective, meaning “of, 
or pertaining to, a holiday”; as a noun, “a periodical 
season of entertainment of a specific sort.” 

Examples of correct use: 

1. The table for the feast was placed out under the trees. 

2. Sunday is always classed as a feast day in the Episcopal 
Church. 

3. The party had assumed a festival air. 

4. Everyone was busy, preparing for the Christmas festival. 

Fill the blanks with feast or festival: 

1. Mary’s mother has sent her a box of good things, and she 

is going to give a-in her room tonight. 

2. Stolen-form an interesting detail of a girl’s life at a 

boarding-school. 

3. The musical - given by the Campos Club of the 

University was largely attended. 

4. An old English proverb says “Enough to eat is as good as 



5. The ancient Hebrews held a religious - every year, 

called “The Passover.” 

Argument and plot 

In Spanish, “argumento” may mean “the plot of a 
story.” When speaking English the word argument as a 


WORDS MISUSED 


85 


translation for “argumento” is often used wrongly by 
Spanish-speaking people for the word plot. 

Remember that the series of incidents that form the 
skeleton of a story should be called the plot. 

An argument is “a reason for or against something; a 
debate or discussion.” 

Examples: 

1. His main argument against living in Havana was that 
rent was so high. 

2. A bitter argument arose over the question of States’ rights. 

To admire and to be surprised 

These verbs are not synonymous, by any means, al¬ 
though we often hear some form of the verb to admire 
used when the right verb would have been to be surprised. 

To admire means “to regard something with mingled 
wonder and approbation.” To be surprised means “to be 
struck with astonishment by something unexpected.” 

Observe the correct use of these verbs in the following 
examples and then fill the blanks in the sentences below: 

1. She was admired for her wit and beauty. 

2. We admired the beautiful view from the top of the moun¬ 
tain. 

3. No one was more surprised than I at his unexpected 
return. 

1. Don’t you-Myrtle’s disposition? 

2. I was greatly-by the news of my cousin’s marriage. 

3. Were you-at the extent of the view from the top of El 

Yunque? Yes, and it was so beautiful that I-it very much. 

4. Annette-your command of Spanish; she is-that 

you speak it so well in such a short time. 

5. I have always-the intense patriotism of the people of 

Porto Rico. 


86 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


Assist and attend 

Attend has several uses in English. 

Assist has only one meaning: “to help.” 

The various uses of the verb attend are illustrated by 
the following sentences: 

We attended the lecture; meaning “we were present at the 
lecture; we went to the lecture.” 

He will attend to the business tomorrow morning; meaning 
“he will see to the business; settle it; arrange it.” 

During her illness she was attended by Dr. Smith; meaning 
“Dr. Smith was the physician in charge of her illness.” 

James attended his mother to the church; meaning “escorted, 
or accompanied.” 

In Spanish, the verb asistir is used in the same ways 
that attend is used in English in the first and third illus¬ 
trations given above, namely, meaning “to be present at 
a function,” and “to take care of someone.” 

Because asistir and assist are so similar in form, Spanish¬ 
speaking pupils often use some form of assist as a trans¬ 
lation for “asistir,” instead of attend which should be used. 

The following sentences illustrate the common error: 

He assisted to the ball game; which should be He 
attended the hall game. We were unable to assist at the 
party, which should be We were unable to he present at 
the party. 

Remember that in English assist means only to help. 

Choose the correct form of assist or attend for the fol¬ 
lowing sentences: 

1. Many people-the horse races last Sunday. 

2. She was-by Dr. Jones in her last illness. 

3. Can you-me a little, in this lesson? 

4. Did you-the bazaar given by the Girl Scouts? 

5. Did you-the dance on Thursday? 


WORDS MISUSED 


87 


Wait for, expect and hope 

The verb to wait for may mean “to look forward to 
something or to stand in readiness.” 

Expect means “to look forward to something as 
probable.” 

To hope means “to desire with expectation of ob¬ 
taining.” 

The following sentences illustrate the correct use: 

1. We hope that you will reach your destination safely. 

2. He was so reckless that his parents always expected to 
hear that he had been killed. 

3. Don’t wait for me very long if I am not there by four 
o’clock. 

Fill the blanks with some form of one of those verbs; 
sometimes the preposition for must be used too: 

1. What do you-to accomplish by this? 

2. Be always-an opportunity to improve your academic 

preparation. 

3. We are-fair weather for our trip. 

4. The Indians did not-cruel treatment from the Span¬ 

iards. 

5. The general- the enemy’s advance entrenched in a 

good position. 

Sympathetic 

This word, which means pertaining to or resulting from, 
a feeling of compassion for another’s sufferings, is often 
wrongly used as a translation for the Spanish word “sim- 
pdtico,” which means in English “ friendly, attractive, 
charming.” 

The following sentences illustrate the correct uses of 
the word sympathetic: 

1. My friend was most sympathetic because of my bad news. 

2. Mrs. Holden has always a kind and sympathetic heart 

for any kind of trouble. # ' 


88 


THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 


To illustrate the correct type of translation for “sim- 
pdJico”: 

1. She is a charming girl. 

2. Everyone who meets her finds her very attractive. 

Courage and anger 

Courage is one of the words often misused on account of 
its similarity to the Spanish word coraje, meaning “anger.” 

We hear people say “He had courage” meaning “He 
was angry,” thus literally translating the expression 
“Tenia coraje.” 

Remember that courage means “valor, or bravery.” 

Apt and able 

Apt means “liable or likely; adapted by nature, quick 
to learn.” 

Able means “having adequate power, resources, qualifi¬ 
cations; competent; qualified.” 

The following uses are correct : 

1. The boy is an apt pupil. 

2. As school closed yesterday, Henry is apt to come today. 

3. Iam not able to help you. 

4. He is an able mechanician. 

5. Will he be able to pass the examination? 

Fill the blanks with able or apt as you deem suitable: 

1. Mr. Humphreys is an-lawyer. 

2. I tried to come yesterday, but was not-to do so. 

3. I was never very-in mathematics and encountered 

many problems that I was not-to solve. 

4. Will you be-to go tomorrow? 

5. He is not-to try to deceive me twice. 

6. Will John be-to come back soon? Yes, he will como 

as soon as he is-. 

7. A pupil who is-in languages is often not-to do 

well in mathematics. 


WORDS MISUSED 89 

8. He was-to graduate in three years because he was an 

-student. 

Willing and anxious 

To be willing to do something means “having the mind 
favorably disposed to do something.” 

To be anxious to do something means “intent, solicitous 
to do something.” 

To be willing does not even imply a desire in any great 
degree. 

Examine the following sentences: 

1. The mayor said he was willing to do anything he could to 
improve the sanitary condition of the city. 

2. We were anxious to provide a pleasant summer camp for 
pre-tubercular children. 

3. Are you willing that Henry should use the car? 

4. I am anxious to hear from my brother, who has been sick. 

5. Mr. Clark said he was willing that we should use his name 
in our propaganda. 

Passenger and passer-by 

A passenger is “one who is travelling on a train, a boat, 
airplane, bus, or any vehicle used as a public means of 
conveyance.” 

A passer-by is “a person who is passing another person, 
or some fixed point.” 

The following sentences illustrate the correct use of 
these words: 

1. Most of the passengers of the train were in the dining-car 
when the accident occurred. 

2. The policeman shot at the thief and injured an innocent 
passer-by. 

3. The passers-by were greatly amused at the quarrel between 
the two old women. 

4. The largest airplanes will carry both mail and passengers. 

Use the words passenger and passer-by in ten sentences. 




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